Recognition of same-sex unions in Europe

Debate has occurred throughout Europe over proposals to legalise same-sex marriage as well as same-sex civil unions. Currently 31 of the 50 countries and the 8 dependent territories in Europe recognise some type of same-sex unions, among them most members of the European Union (23/27).

Laws regarding same-sex partnerships in Europe¹
  Marriage
  Civil union
  Limited domestic recognition (cohabitation)
  Limited foreign recognition (residency rights)
  Unrecognized
  Constitution limits marriage to opposite-sex couples
¹ May include recent laws or court decisions that have not yet entered into effect.
Countries performing civil unions in Europe
  Gender-neutral civil unions.
  Civil unions for same-sex couples only.
  Former civil unions for same-sex couples, replaced by marriage.
  Civil unions never performed.
Part of the LGBT rights series
Marriage
Civil unions and
registered partnerships
Common-law marriage
Minimal recognition
See also
Notes
  1. Performed statewide in 25 of 31 states and in Mexico City, in certain municipalities in one other state, and recognized by all states in such cases.
  2. Performed in the Netherlands proper, including the Caribbean Netherlands. Registered in Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten in such cases, but the rights of marriage are not guaranteed.
  3. Neither performed nor recognized in Niue, Tokelau, or the Cook Islands.
  4. Neither performed nor recognized in six British Overseas Territories.
  5. Neither performed nor recognized in American Samoa or some tribal nations.
  6. Cohabitation. Registered foreign marriages confer limited rights. Marriage recognized in some cities.
  7. Degree of recognition unknown. No actual cases to date.
  8. The Coman v. Romania ruling of the European Court of Justice obliges the state to provide residency rights for the foreign spouses of EU citizens.
  9. Legal guardianships (nationwide, except Hong Kong and Macau), residency rights for foreign spouses of legal residents (Hong Kong).
  10. Unregistered cohabitation or Maitri Karar–type contractual relationships.
  11. Some cities and prefectures issue certificates for same-sex couples, but they are not legally binding.
  12. Foreign same-sex spouses are eligible for a "Non-Tourist Visa" as a dependent.
* Not yet in effect
LGBT portal

As of September 2021, sixteen European countries legally recognise and perform same-sex marriages: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Same-sex marriage will become legal in Switzerland in July 2022, following a referendum on the issue on 26 September 2021 that passed with 64.1% in favour. An additional thirteen European countries legally recognise some form of civil union, namely Andorra, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Montenegro, San Marino, and Slovenia.

Poland and Slovakia recognise private contractual cohabitation of two persons (regardless of sexual orientation or relationship type - including non-sexual non-intimate relationships) for limited purposes. Although they do not recognise same-sex unions themselves, Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania and Romania, are bound by a ruling by the European Court of Justice to recognise same-sex marriages performed within the EU and including an EU citizen for the purposes of granting legal residence,[1] though this ruling is not always respected in practice, as in the case of Romania which has not implemented the ruling.[2]

Of the countries that perform same-sex marriages, some still allow civil unions, e.g. Benelux countries, France and the United Kingdom,[nb 1] whereas Germany, Ireland and Nordic countries have ended their pre-marriage civil union legislation so that existing unions remain but new ones are not possible.

Several European countries do not recognise any same-sex unions. Marriage is defined as a union solely between a man and a woman in the constitutions of Armenia, Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Georgia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Montenegro, Russia, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia and Ukraine. Of these, however, Croatia, Hungary, and Montenegro recognise same-sex partnerships, while Armenia[lower-alpha 1][3] recognises same-sex marriages performed abroad.[4]

Current situation

European Court of Human Rights

Over the years, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has handled cases that challenged the lack of legal recognition of same-sex couples in certain member states. The Court has held that the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) requires member states to provide legal recognition, but does not require marriage to be opened to same-sex couples.

In Schalk and Kopf v Austria (24 June 2010), the European Court of Human Rights decided that the European Convention on Human Rights does not oblige member states to legislate for or legally recognise same-sex marriages.[5] However, the Court, for the first time, accepted same-sex relationships as a form of "family life".

In Vallianatos and Others v Greece (7 November 2013),[6] the Court held that exclusion of same-sex couples from registering a civil union, a legal form of partnership available to opposite-sex couples, violates the convention. Greece had enacted a law in 2008 that established civil unions for opposite-sex couples only. A 2015 law extended partnership rights to same-sex couples.

Oliari and Others v Italy (21 July 2015)[7] went further and established a positive obligation upon member states to provide legal recognition for same-sex couples. Italy thus breached the convention; it eventually implemented civil unions in 2016. The decision set a precedent for potential future cases regarding the 23 member states, certain British and Dutch territories, and the states with limited recognition (excluding Kosovo), that currently do not recognise same-sex couples' right to family life.[8]

Chapin and Charpentier v France (9 June 2016) largely confirmed Schalk and Kopf v. Austria, holding that denying a same-sex couple access to marriage does not violate the convention.[9] At the time of the judgment, France did allow same-sex marriage, however, the case originated from 2004, when only pacte civil de solidarité (PACS) was available to same-sex couples in France.

European Union
See also: Coman v. Romania

Some debate occurred within the European Union about how to require member states to recognise same-sex marriages conducted in other member states, as well as any European citizens' civil unions or registered partnerships, so as to ensure the right of freedom of movement for citizens' family members.[10]

In 2010, Romanian LGBT activist Adrian Coman and his American partner, Robert Claibourn Hamilton, married in Belgium, and subsequently attempted to relocate to Romania. Romanian authorities refused to recognise their marriage and the case progressed to the European Court of Justice.[11] On 11 January 2018, the ECJ's advocate general, Melchior Wathelet, issued an official legal opinion stating that an EU member country cannot refuse residency rights to the same-sex spouse of an EU citizen on the grounds that it does not recognise same-sex marriage.[12]

On 5 June 2018, the ECJ ruled in Coman's favour, stating the term "spouse" was gender-neutral, and member states are therefore obliged to recognise EU residency rights for partners of EU citizens. However, the court confirmed that it will still be up to member states whether to authorise same-sex marriage.[13][1]

According to research from the European Parliament, some EU states still do not in practice grant residency to same-sex spouses, as required by Coman v. Romania. As of September 2021, Hamilton himself has not been granted residency by the Romanian government, despite the ruling. In September 2021, the European Parliament passed a resolution condemning some states failure to implement the ruling, and calling on the European Commission to ensure rights of same-sex spouses are upheld.[2]

National level
Status Country Since Country population
(Last Census count)
Marriage
(17 countries)
* In nine countries that have passed marriage,
other types of partnerships are available too.
** Not yet in effect.		 Austria* 2019[nb 2][14] 8,504,850
Belgium* 2003[nb 3][15] 11,198,638
Denmark 2012[nb 4][16] 5,655,750
Finland 2017[nb 5][17][18] 5,470,820
France* 2013[nb 6][19] 66,030,000
Germany 2017[nb 7][20] 80,716,000
Iceland 2010[nb 8][21] 325,671
Ireland 2015[nb 9][22] 4,609,600
Luxembourg* 2015[nb 10][23] 549,680
Malta* 2017[nb 11][24] 446,547
Netherlands 2001[nb 12][25][26] 16,856,620
Norway 2009[nb 13][27] 5,136,700
Portugal* 2010[nb 14][28] 10,427,301
Spain* 2005[nb 15][29] 46,704,314
Sweden 2009[nb 16][30] 10,161,797
Switzerland** 2022[nb 17][31] 8,183,800
United Kingdom 2020[nb 18][32][33][34] 67,647,579
Subtotal — — 348,625,667
(46.70% of the European population)
Recognition of foreign marriage
(1 country - also recognizes civil unions)		 Estonia 2016[35] 1,315,819
Subtotal — — 1,315,819
(0.18% of the European population)
Civil unions
(12 countries)
* In four of the countries that have passed civil unions,
another type of partnership is available too.		 Andorra* 2005[nb 19][36] 85,082
Croatia 2014[nb 20][37] 4,284,889
Czech Republic* 2006[nb 21][38] 10,513,209
Cyprus[nb 22] 2015[39] 1,117,000[nb 23]
Greece 2015[40] 10,816,286
Hungary* 2009[nb 24][41] 9,877,365
Italy* 2016[nb 25][42] 60,782,668
Liechtenstein 2011[43] 37,132
Monaco 2020[44] 36,371
Montenegro 2021[45] 647,905
San Marino 2019[nb 26][46] 32,570
Slovenia 2006[nb 27][47][48] 2,061,085
Subtotal — — 100,291,562
(13.44% of the European population)
Unregistered cohabitation
(2 countries)		 Slovakia 2018[nb 28][49][50] 5,415,949
Poland 2012[51] 38,483,957
Subtotal — — 43,899,906
(5.08% of the European population)
Total — — 494,132,954
(66.18% of the European population)
No recognition
(8 countries)
* As part of the European Union, is legally bound to recognize
foreign same-sex unions in compliance with
case C-673/16 of the European Court of Justice.		 Albania — 3,020,209
Azerbaijan — 9,494,600
Bosnia and Herzegovina — 3,871,643
Kazakhstan — 17,948,816
North Macedonia — 2,058,539
Romania* — 19,942,642
Turkey — 76,667,864
Vatican City — 842
Subtotal — — 133,005,155
(17.81% of the European population)
Constitutional ban on marriage
(14 countries)
* As part of the European Union, is legally bound to recognize
foreign same-sex unions in compliance with
case C-673/16 of the European Court of Justice.
** Other types of partnerships are available.		 Armenia 2015[nb 29][52] 3,018,854
Belarus 1994[53] 9,475,100
Bulgaria* 1991[54] 7,364,570
Croatia** 2013[55][56] 4,284,889
Georgia 2018[57] 4,935,880
Hungary** 2012[58][59] 9,877,365
Latvia* 2006[60][61] 1,990,300
Lithuania* 1992[62] 2,944,459
Moldova 1994[63] 3,557,600
Montenegro** 2007[64] 647,905
Russia 2020 143,700,000
Serbia 2006[65] 7,209,764
Slovakia** 2014[66][67] 5,415,949
Ukraine 1996[68] 44,291,413
Subtotal — — 248,714,048
(33.31% of the European population)
Total — — 381,719,203
(51.13% of the European population)

Partially-recognised and unrecognised states
Status Country Since State population
(Last estimate count)
No recognition
(5 states)		 Abkhazia — 243,564
Kosovo — 1,907,592
Northern Cyprus — 313,626
South Ossetia — 51,547
Transnistria — 475,665
Subtotal — — 2,991,994
Constitutional ban on marriage
(1 state)		 Artsakh 2006[nb 30][69] 150,932
Subtotal — — 150,932
Total — — 3,142,926

Sub-national level
Status Country Jurisdiction Legal since Jurisdiction population
(Last Census count)
Marriage
(8 jurisdictions)
* Other types of partnerships are available too.
 Denmark Faroe Islands 2017[70][71] 49,198
Greenland 2016[72] 56,081
United Kingdom Akrotiri and Dhekelia 2014[73] 15,700
Alderney 2018[74] 2,020
Gibraltar* 2016[75][76] 32,194
Guernsey 2017[77][78] 62,948
Isle of Man* 2016[79] 84,497
Jersey* 2018[80] 100,080
Sark 2020[81] 600
Total 403,318

(0.05% of the European population)

Future legislation

Government proposals or proposals with a parliamentary majority

Andorra: On 10 March 2020, the three parties forming the governing coalition, the Democrats, the Liberal Party and Committed Citizens, presented the draft of a bill to legalise same-sex marriage.[82][83][84] After consultation with the Bar Association and the Superior Council of Justice (CSJ), the bill was introduced to the General Council on 24 November 2020. The bill was under public consultation until 13 April 2022,[85] and is expected to pass before the 2022 summer break of the General Council.[86][87]

Liechtenstein: On 29 September 2021, the Landtag held a debate in which the majority of political parties broadly agreed that same-sex marriage should be legalized. They have called for public consultations before legislating on the issue.[88] On 11 March 2022, the government introduced a bill to allow same-sex couples in registered partnerships to adopt each other's step children in accordance with a 2021 court ruling, and said future bills for full marriage equality and joint adoption would have to come from individual MPs.[89]

Opposition proposals

Italy: On 31 March 2022, Senator Alessandra Maiorino of the 5-star movement introduced a bill to legalize same-sex marriage.[90]

Government proposals or proposals with a parliamentary majority

Bosnia and Herzegovina: In October 2018, the Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina announced the formation of a working group to examine the legal status of same-sex couples in the Federation, with the ultimate goal of proposing a legal solution for same-sex civil unions. The working group was established in January 2020 and was due to start working in April 2020, but the start was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[91]

Kosovo: On 7 July 2020, Justice Minister Selim Selimi introduced a revised Civil Code that he said included a path to allowing same-sex civil unions, while restricting marriage to opposite-sex couples. If the civil code is passed, a special law for civil unions will be required.[92] The draft Civil Code was rejected by the Assembly on 16 March 2022. It is unclear at present if the bill will be presented for another vote.[93]

Latvia: In February 2022, a Saeima working group directed a draft law allowing civil unions to the parliamentary Legal Commission for consideration. The draft law was created following the Constitutional Court's 2020 judgment on the right of a same-sex couple to a parental leave.[94] On 31 March 2022 it passed its first reading, and requires two further readings before coming into law.[95]

Serbia: In November 2020, Gordana Čomić, Minister for Human and Minority Rights and Social Dialogue, announced that a law on same-sex partnerships would be brought before parliament in the first half of 2021.[96][97]

Public opinion

Public support for same-sex marriage from EU member states as measured from a 2015 poll is the greatest in the Netherlands (91%), Sweden (90%), Denmark (87%), Spain (84%), Ireland (80%), Belgium (77%), Luxembourg (75%), the United Kingdom (71%) and France (71%).[98] In recent years, support has risen most significantly in Malta, from 18% in 2006 to 65% in 2015 and in Ireland from 41% in 2006 to 80% in 2015.[99]

After the approval of same-sex marriage in Portugal in January 2010, 52% of the Portuguese population stated that they were in favor of the legislation.[100] In 2008, 58% of the Norwegian voters supported same-sex marriage, which was introduced in the same year, and 31 percent were against it.[101] In January 2013, 54.1% of Italians respondents supported same-sex marriage.[102] In a late January 2013 survey, 77.2% of Italians respondents supported the recognition of same-sex unions.[103] According to an Ipsos poll published in 2021, 83% of Italians were in favour of legal recognition for same-sex couples, 10% stated they were against and 7% didn't have a specific position on the issue.[104] 59% of surveyed Italians stated they were in favour of same-sex couples jointly adopting children, while 36% were opposed.[104]

In Greece, support more than tripled between 2006 and 2017. In 2006, 15% of Greeks said that they agreed with same-sex marriage being allowed throughout Europe,[99] rising to 50.04% by 2017. A survey in 2020 indicated that 56% of the Greek population accept same-sex marriage.[105][106]

In Ireland, a 2008 survey revealed 84% of people supported civil unions for same-sex couples (and 58% for same-sex marriage),[107] while a 2010 survey showed 67% supported same-sex marriage[108] by 2012 this figure had risen to 73% in support.[109] On 22 May 2015, 62.1% of the electorate voted to enshrine same-sex marriage in the Irish constitution as equal to heterosexual marriage.

In Croatia, a poll conducted in November 2013 revealed that 59% of Croats think that marriage should be constitutionally defined as a union between a man and a woman, while 31% do not agree with the idea.[110] In Poland, support for same sex marriages has increased from 17% in 2006[111] to 45% in 2019,[112] according to Eurobarometer; other polls show a majority supporting registered partnerships.[113][114]

In the European Union, support tends to be the lowest in Bulgaria, Latvia, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, and Lithuania. The average percentage of support for same-sex marriage in the European Union as of 2006 when it had 25 members was 44%, which had descended from a previous percentage of 53%. The change was caused by more socially conservative nations joining the EU.[99] In 2015, with 28 members, average support was at 61%.[98]

Opinion polls
  Indicates the country/territory has legalised same-sex marriage nationwide
  Indicates that same-sex marriage is legal in certain parts of the country
  Indicates that the country has civil unions or registered partnerships
Opinion polls for same-sex marriage
Country Pollster Year For Against Neutral[lower-alpha 2] Source
 Andorra Institut d'Estudis Andorrans 2013 70% 19% 11% [115]
 Armenia Pew Research Center 2015 3% 96% 1% [116][117]
 Austria Eurobarometer 2019 66% 30% 4% [118]
 Belarus Pew Research Center 2015 16% 81% 3% [116][119][117]
 Belgium Eurobarometer 2019 82% 17% 1% [118]
 Bosnia and Herzegovina Pew Research Center 2016 13% 84% 4% [116][117]
 Bulgaria Eurobarometer 2019 16% 74% 10% [118]
 Croatia Eurobarometer 2019 39% 55% 6% [118]
 Cyprus Eurobarometer 2019 36% 60% 4% [118]
 Czech Republic Median agency 2019 67% - - [120]
 Denmark Eurobarometer 2019 89% 8% 3% [118]
 Estonia HumanrightsEE 2021 47% 46% 7% [121]
 Finland Eurobarometer 2019 76% 21% 3% [118]
France Ipsos 2021 59% 7% [122]
 Georgia Pew Research Center 2016 3% 95% 2% [116][117]
Germany Ipsos 2021 68% [122]
 Greece Eurobarometer 2019 39% 56% 5% [118]
Hungary Ipsos 2021 46% 18% [122]
 Iceland Gallup 2004 87% - - [123]
 Ireland Eurobarometer 2019 79% 13% 8% [118]
Italy Ipsos 2021 63% 30% 7% [122]
 Latvia Eurobarometer 2019 24% 70% 6% [118]
Liechtenstein Liechtenstein Institut 2021 72% 28% 0% [124]
 Lithuania Eurobarometer 2019 30% 63% 7% [118]
 Luxembourg Eurobarometer 2019 85% 9% 6% [118]
 Malta Eurobarometer 2019 67% 25% 8% [118]
 Moldova Pew Research Center 2015 5% 92% 3% [116][117]
Netherlands Eurobarometer 2019 92% 8% 0% [118]
 Norway Pew Research Center 2017 72% 19% 9% [119]
Poland Ipsos 2021 29% 22% [122]
 Portugal Eurobarometer 2019 74% 20% 6% [118]
 Romania Eurobarometer 2019 29% 63% 8% [118]
Russia Ipsos 2021 17% 52% [122]
 Serbia Pew Research Center 2015 12% 83% 4% [116][117]
 Slovakia Eurobarometer 2019 20% 70% 10% [118]
 Slovenia Eurobarometer 2019 62% 35% 3% [118]
 Spain Eurobarometer 2019 86% 9% 5% [118]
Sweden Ipsos 2021 79% 3% [122]
  Switzerland gfs-zürich 2020 81% 18% 1% [125]
Turkey Ipsos 2021 24% 25% [122]
 Ukraine Pew Research Center 2016 9% 85% 6% [116][117]
United Kingdom Ipsos 2021 68% 7% [118]
Opinion polls for same-sex marriage by dependent territory
Country Pollster Year For Against Neutral[lower-alpha 2] Source
 Faroe Islands Spyr.fo 2019 71.1% 12.6% 16.7% [126]
 Gibraltar Inter-Ministerial Committee Consultation 2015 63% 37% 0% [127]
Northern Ireland YouGov 2019 55% - - [128][129]

Notes
  1. Degree of recognition unknown. No actual cases to date.
  2. Also comprises: Don't know; No answer; Other; Refused.

See also

Notes
  1. Excluding Guernsey and Overseas Territories (except Gibraltar).
  2. Eingetragene Partnerschaft since 2010.
  3. Cohabitation légale since 1999, also cohabitation de fait gives some rights to non-married couples.
  4. Registreret partnerskab since 1989 until 2012.
  5. Rekisteröidystä parisuhteesta since 2001 until 2017.
  6. Pacte civil de solidarité since 1999.
  7. Eingetragene Lebenspartnerschaft since 2001 until 2017.
  8. Staðfesta samvist since 1996 until 2010.
  9. Civil Partnership since 2010 until 2015.
  10. Partenariat since 2004.
  11. Civil union since 2014.
  12. Geregistreerd partnerschap since 1998, also samenwonen gives some rights to non-married couples.
  13. Registrert partnerskap since 1993 until 2009.
  14. Uniões de facto since 2001.
  15. Parejas de hecho available in each autonomous community, legalized between 1998 and 2018. Since 1994, limited rights for cohabiting couples.
  16. Registrerat partnerskap since 1994 until 2009.
  17. Eingetragene Partnerschaft since 2004 until 2022.
  18. Civil Partnership since 2004.
  19. Stable union since 2005 and civil union since 2014.
  20. Unregistered cohabitation between 2003 and 2014. Life partnerships životno partnerstvo since 2014.
  21. Unregistered cohabitation since 2001 and registered partnerships registrované partnerství since 2006. Limited rights for a "close person" (Osoba blízká) since 1964.
  22. Excluding the disputed region of Northern Cyprus.
  23. Including the disputed region of Northern Cyprus.
  24. Unregistered cohabitation élettársi kapcsolat and registered partnerships bejegyzett élettársi kapcsolat since 2009.
  25. Civil unions and cohabitation agreements since 2016.
  26. Limited residency rights for foreign spouses since 2012.
  27. Registrirana partnerska skupnost between 2006 and 2017. Partnership (partnerska zveza) since 2017.
  28. Limited rights for a "close person" (blízke osoby) since 1964.
  29. It is not clear if the Constitution of Armenia bans same-sex marriage. Article 35 states that "women and men of marriageable age have the right to marry and to found a family of their own free will" (in Armenian: Ամուսնական տարիքի հասած կինը և տղամարդը միմյանց հետ իրենց կամքի ազատ արտահայտությամբ ամուսնանալու և ընտանիք կազմելու իրավունք ունեն), but may not restrict marriage to opposite-sex couples. The article 143 of the Family Code recognizes foreign marriages as long as they conform with the legality of the territory where they were celebrated.
  30. It is not clear if the Constitution of Artsakh bans same-sex marriage. Article 35 states that "women and men of marriageable age have the right to marry and to found a family of their own free will" (in Armenian: Ամուսնական տարիքի հասած կինը և տղամարդը միմյանց հետ իրենց կամքի ազատ արտահայտությամբ ունեն ամուսնանալու և ընտանիք կազմելու իրավունք), but may not restrict marriage to opposite-sex couples. The article 142 of the Family Code recognizes foreign marriages as long as they conform with the legality of the territory where they were celebrated.

References
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  3. Vic Gerami (2019-02-19). "'You have no right to call yourself Armenian' Say Gay Man's Attackers". The Armenian Weekly. Retrieved 2019-03-06.
  4. "Same-sex marriages registered abroad are valid in Armenia". PanARMENIAN.Net. 3 July 2017.
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