Tai Tham script

The Tai Tham script (Tham meaning "scripture"), also historically known simply as Tua Tham (Northeastern Thai: ตัวธรรม /tùa tʰám/, cf. Lao: ຕົວທຳ/ຕົວທັມ BGN/PCGN toua tham) or 'dharma letters', also known as Lanna script (Thai: อักษรธรรมล้านนา RTGS: Akson Tham Lan Na; Burmese: လန်နအက္ခရာ RTGS: Lanna Akara) or Tua Mueang (ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨾᩮᩥᩬᨦ, Northern Thai pronunciation: [tǔa.mɯ̄aŋ] listen, ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩼), is a writing system used for Northern Thai (i.e., Kham Mueang), Tai Lü, and Khün, all three belonging to the group of Southwestern Tai languages. In addition, the Lanna script is used for Lao Tham (or Old Lao) and other dialect variants in Buddhist palm-leaf manuscripts and notebooks. The script is also known as Tham or Yuan script.[5]

For the Unicode block, see Tai Tham (Unicode block).
Tai Tham
ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩼, Tua Mueang
Lanna
Script type
Time period
c. 1300–present
Directionleft-to-right 
LanguagesNorthern Thai, Tai Lü, Khün, Isan and Lao
Related scripts
Parent systems
Child systems
New Tai Lue, Tham Lao
ISO 15924
ISO 15924Lana, 351 , ​Tai Tham (Lanna)
Unicode
Unicode alias
Tai Tham
U+1A20–U+1AAF
[a] The Semitic origin of the Brahmic scripts is not universally agreed upon.

The Northern Thai language is a close relative of (standard) Thai. It is spoken by nearly 6 million people in Northern Thailand and several thousand in Laos of whom few are literate in Lanna script. The script is still read by older monks. Northern Thai has six linguistic tones and Thai only five, making transcription into the Thai alphabet problematic. There is some resurgent interest in the script among younger people, but an added complication is that the modern spoken form, called Kammuang, differs in pronunciation from the older form.[6]

There are 670,000 speakers of Tai Lü, some of those born before 1950 are literate in Tham, also known as Old Tai Lue. The script has also continued to be taught in the monasteries. The New Tai Lue script is derived from Tham. There are 120,000 speakers of Khün for which Lanna is the only script.

History
Nameboard of a Buddhist temple in Chiang Mai written with Lanna: Wat Mokhamtuang (and street number 119 in Thai)

The Tai Tham script shows a strong similarity to the Mon script used by the Mon kingdom of Haripunjaya around the 13th century CE, in the present-day Lamphun Province of Northern Thailand. The oldest known document containing the Tai Tham script is dated to 1376 CE and was found in Sukhothai. The document is a bilingual inscription on a gold folio, containing one line of Pali written in the Tai Tham script, while the vernacular is written in the Siamese language, using the Sukhothai script. The Tai Tham script was adapted to write vernacular languages not later than the 15th century CE, most probably in Chiang Mai, in the Lan Na Kingdom.[7] The script spread from Lan Na to surrounding areas such as modern day Laos, Isan, Shan State and Sipsong Panna. Numerous local variants developed, such as the Lue variant (Sipsong Panna), the Khuen variant (Shan State) and the Tham Lao variant (Laos and Isan). The variants differ only slightly in appearance, and the system of writing has remained the same.[8] As the name suggests, the use of the Tham (Dharma) script in Lao was restricted to religious literature, either used to transcribe Pali, or religious treatises written in Lao intended solely for the clergy. Religious instructional materials and prayer books dedicated to the laity were written in Tai Noi instead. As a result, only a few people outside the temples were literate in the script. In Isan, evidence of the script includes two stone inscriptions, such as the one housed at Wat Tham Suwannakhuha in Nong Bua Lamphu, dated to 1564, and another from Wat Mahaphon in Maha Sarakham from the same period.[9]

A manuscript written in Tai Tham script, Collection of the National Museum of China.

Most of the script is recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts, many of which were destroyed during the 'Thaification' purges of the 1930s; contemporaneously this period of Thai nationalisation also ended its use as the primary written language in Northern Thailand.[10] Although no longer in use in Isan, the alphabet is enjoying a resurgence in Northern Thailand, and is still used as the primary written script for the Tai Lü and Tai Khün languages spoken in the 'Golden Triangle' where Thailand, Laos, Burma and southern China meet. Its use is rather limited to the long-term monks in Laos and most materials published today are in the modern Lao script.[10]

Brahmic scripts
The Brahmic script and its descendants
Northern Brahmic
Southern Brahmic

Characteristics

Although both the ancient forms of the Mon and Khmer script are different, they are both abugidas that descend from the Brahmic scripts introduced via contacts with South Indian traders, soldiers, merchants and Brahmans. As a Mon-derived script, Tai Tham has many similarities with the writing systems for Burmese, Shan, Rakhine and modern Mon and rounder letter forms compared to the angled letters of Khmer.[10] Letters can be stacked, sometimes with special subscript forms, similar to 'ຼ' which was used in Tai Noi and also in modern Lao as the subscript version of 'ຣ' /r/ or 'ລ' /l/ as in Lao: ຫຼວງພຼະບາງ/ຫລວງພຣະບາງ. Letters also are more circular or rounded than the typically angled style of Khmer.[9]

Consonants

Consonants are divided into two groups: main consonants (พยัญชนะหลัก) and added consonants (พยัญชนะเติม). There are 33 main consonants, and there are 15 added consonants. The main consonants are those from Pali. The main consonant group is further divided into two groups: categorized (พยัญชนะวัคค์, vagga) and uncategorized consonants (พยัญชนะอวัคค์, avagga). There are 25 categorized consonants, and there are 8 uncategorized consonants. The added consonant group consists of consonants that have been added to write Tai sounds that do not occur in Pali.

Categorized
ObstruentsNasals
mainaddedmainaddedmainaddedmain

ก
kǎ
/k/
high
ข
khǎ
/kʰ/, /x/
high
ฃ
khǎ
/x/
high
ค
ka᷇
/k/
low
ฅ
kha᷇
/x/
low
ฆ
kha᷇
/x/
low
ง
nga᷇
/ŋ/
low

จ
cǎ
/t͡ɕ/
high
ฉ
chǎ
/t͡ɕʰ/
high
ช
ca᷇ จ๊ะ
/t͡ɕ/
low
ซ
sa᷇
/s/
low		,
ฌ
cha᷇
/t͡ɕʰ/
low
ญ
nya᷇
/ɲ/
low

la tǎ
/t/
high		,
la thǎ
/tʰ/
high
dǎ
/d/
mid
la tha᷇
/tʰ/
low
la na᷇
/n/
low

tǎ
/t/
high
thǎ
/tʰ/
high
ta᷇
/t/
low
tha᷇
/tʰ/
low
na᷇
/n/
low

bǎ
/b/
mid
pǎ
/p/
high
phǎ
/pʰ/
high
fǎ
/f/
high
pa᷇
/p/
low
fa᷇
/f/
low
pha᷇
/pʰ/
low
ma᷇
/m/
low
Uncategorized

nya᷇
/ɲ/
low
yǎ
/j/
mid
ha᷇
/h/
low
la᷇
/l/
low
wa᷇
/w/
low

sǎ
/s/
high
sǎ
/s/
high
sǎ
/s/
high

hǎ
/h/
high
la᷇
/l/
low		,
ǎ
/ʔ/
mid
ha᷇
/h/
low
,
lāe
/lɛ̄ː/
nā
/nāː/
sǒr sǒng ho᷇ng
/sɔ̌ː sɔ̌ːŋ hɔ᷇ːŋ/
nya᷇ nya᷇
/ɲa᷇ʔ ɲa᷇ʔ/
ra rōng
/la᷇.hōːŋ/

lu᷇e
/lɯ᷇ʔ/
lūe
/lɯ̄ː/

Vowels
Northern Thai written in Tai Tham script in Chiang Mai

Vowel characters come in two forms: as stand-alone letters for writing initial vowels or as diacritics that can be attached to all sides of the consonant letters. However, Lanna excels in terms of the number of diacritics used. Some vowel sounds can be written with a combination of as many as four diacritics: one on each side of the consonant.[11][12]

Single or independent vowels
IndependentDiacritic (with ᨠ)Sound
ᩋᨠᩡᨠᩢ/a/
ᩋᩣᨠᩣᨠᩤ/aː/
ᩍᨠᩥ/i/
ᩎᨠᩦ/iː/
ᨠᩧ/ɯ/
ᨠᩨ/ɯː/
ᩏᨠᩩ/u/
ᩐᨠᩪ/uː/
ᩑᨠᩮ/eː/
ᨠᩯ/ɛː/
ᩒᨠᩰ/oː/
ᨠᩱᨠᩲ/aj/
ᨠᩭ/ɔj/
ᨠᩴᨠᩘ/aŋ/
Complex vowels
Diacritics (with ᨠ)Sound
ᨠᩮᩡ/e/
ᨠᩯᩡ/ɛ/
ᨠᩰᩡᨠᩫ/o/
ᨠᩮᩣ/oː/
ᨠᩰᩬᩡ/ɔ/
ᨠᩬᩴᨠᩬ/ɔː/
ᨠᩮᩬᩥᩡᨠᩮᩬᩧᩡ/ə/
ᨠᩮᩬᩥᨠᩮᩬᩧ/əː/
ᨠᩱ᩠ᨿᨠᩢ᩠ᨿ/aj/
ᨠᩣᩴᨠᩴᩤ/am/
Diphthongs
Diacritics (with ᨠ)Sound
ᨠᩮᩢᩣ/au/
ᩮᨠ᩠ᩀᩡ/ia/
ᩮᨠ᩠ᩀᨠ᩠ᩀ/iːa/
ᨠᩮᩬᩥᩋᩡᨠᩮᩬᩧᩋᩡ/ɯa/
ᨠᩮᩬᩥᩋᨠᩮᩬᩧᩋ/ɯːa/
ᨠ᩠ᩅᩫᩡ/ua/
ᨠ᩠ᩅᩫᨠ᩠ᩅ/uːa/

Short vowels are followed by a glottal stop /ʔ/ if they are followed by another consonant.

Pali vowels
Tai Tham- , -,
ᩋ-ᩣᩍᩎᩏᩐᩑ-ᩮᩣ,-ᩮᩤ, ᩒ
IPA/ʔáʔ//ʔāː//ʔíʔ//ʔīː//ʔúʔ//ʔūː//ʔēː//ʔōː/

Tonal markers

mai yo
/máj.jɔ́ʔ/
mai kho chang
/máj.xɔ̌ː.t͡ɕáːŋ/

Tai Tham and other scripts

Consonants in Lanna have two sets of glyphs: the base form and the subjoined form. The sakot is used to trigger the subjoined forms.[5][13]

Categorized letters
Tai Tham New Tai Lue Thai Lao Burmese Khmer
IPA Alphabet Subs.
/ká/ ᨠ-᩠ᨠᦂกກကក
/xá/ ᨡ-᩠ᨡᦃขຂခខ
/xá/ ᨢ--ฃ
/ka᷇/ ᨣ-᩠ᨣᦅคຄဂគ
/xa᷇/ ᨤ-ᦆฅ
/xa᷇/ ᨥ-᩠ᨥ-ฆ (modern: ຄ)ဃឃ
/ŋa᷇/ ᨦ-᩠ᨦᦇงງငង
Tai Tham New Tai Lue Thai Lao Burmese Khmer
IPA Alphabet Subs.
/t͡ɕá/ ᨧ-᩠ᨧᦈจຈစច
/sá/ ᨨ-᩠ᨨ-ฉ (modern: ສ)ဆឆ
/t͡ɕa᷇/ ᨩ-᩠ᨩᦋชຊဇជ
/sa᷇/ ᨪ-ᦌซ
/sa᷇/ ᨫ-᩠ᨫ-ฌ (modern: ຊ)ဈឈ
/ɲa᷇/
/ja᷇/[14]		 ᨬ-᩠ᨬ-ญ (modern: ຍ)ညញ
Tai Tham New Tai Lue Thai Lao Burmese Khmer
IPA Alphabet Subs.
/tá/ ᨭ-᩠ᨭ-ฏ (modern: ຕ)ဋដ
/tʰá/ ᨮ-᩠ᨮ-ฐ (modern: ຖ)ဌឋ
/dá/ ᨯ-᩠ᨯᦡฑ,ด (modern: ທ,ດ)ဍឌ
/tʰa᷇/ ᨰ-᩠ᨰ-ฒ (modern: ທ)ဎឍ
/na᷇/ ᨱ-᩠ᨱ-ณ (modern: ນ)ဏណ
Tai Tham New Tai Lue Thai Lao Burmese Khmer
IPA Alphabet Subs.
/tá/ ᨲ-᩠ᨲᦎตຕတត
/tʰá/ ᨳ-᩠ᨳᦏถຖထថ
/ta᷇/ ᨴ-᩠ᨴᦑทທဒទ
/tʰa᷇/ ᨵ-᩠ᨵᦒธ (modern: ທ)ဓធ
/na᷇/ ᨶ-᩠ᨶᦓนນနន
Tai Tham New Tai Lue Thai Lao Burmese Khmer
IPA Alphabet Subs.
/bá/ ᨷ-᩠ᨷᦢบບပប
/pá/ ᨸ-ᦔปປ
/pʰá/ ᨹ-᩠ᨹᦕผຜဖផ
/fá/ ᨺ-ᦚฝຝ
/pa᷇/ ᨻ-᩠ᨻᦗพພဗព
/fa᷇/ ᨼ-ᦝฟຟ
/pʰa᷇/ ᨽ-᩠ᨽᦘภ (modern: ພ)ဘភ
/ma᷇/ ᨾ-᩠ᨾᦙมມမម

Uncategorized letters
Tai Tham New Tai Lue Thai Lao Burmese Khmer
IPA Alphabet Subs.
/ɲa᷇/
/ja᷇/[14]		 ᨿ-᩠ᨿᦍย ต่ำຍယយ
/já/ ᩀ-ᦊย กลาง, อยຢ
/ha᷇/
/la᷇/		 ᩁ-᩠ᩁᦣรຣ (modern: ລ)ရរ
/lɯ́ʔ/ ᩂ--ฤၒឫ
/la᷇/ ᩃ-᩠ᩃᦟลລလល
/lɯ̄ː/ ᩄ--ฦၔឭ
/wa᷇/ ᩅ-᩠ᩅᦞวວဝវ
Tai Tham New Tai Lue Thai Lao Burmese Khmer
IPA Alphabet Subs.
/sá/ ᩆ-᩠ᩆ-ศ (modern: ສ)ၐ (modern: သ)ឝ (modern: ស)
/sá/ ᩇ-᩠ᩇ-ษ (modern: ສ)ၑ (modern: သ)ឞ (modern: ស)
/sá/ ᩈ-᩠ᩈᦉสສသស
/há/ ᩉ-᩠ᩉᦠหຫဟហ
/la᷇/ ᩊ-᩠ᩊ-ฬ (modern: ລ)ဠឡ
/ʔá/ ᩋ-᩠ᩋᦀอອအអ
/ha᷇/ ᩌ--ฮຮ

Numerals

Lanna has two sets of numerals. The first set, Lek Nai Tam, is reserved for liturgical purposes. The other set, Lek Hora, is used in everyday life.[15]

Arabic numerals 01234 56789
Hora digits ᪀᪁᪂᪃᪄᪅᪆᪇᪈᪉
Tham digits ᪐᪑᪒᪓᪔᪕᪖᪗᪘᪙
Thai numerals ๐๑๒๓๔๕๖๗๘๙
Lao numerals ໐໑໒໓໔໕໖໗໘໙
Burmese numerals ๐၁၂၃၄၅၆၇၈၉
Khmer numerals ០១២៣៤៥៦៧៨៩

Sanskrit and Pali

The Tai Tham script (like all Indic scripts) uses a number of modifications to write Pali and related languages (in particular, Sanskrit). When writing Pali, only 33 consonants and 12 vowels are used.

Categorized (วัคค์ ᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼ vagga)
classunaspirated
unvoiced
สิถิลอโฆษะ		aspirated
ธนิตอโฆษะ		unaspirated
voiced
สิถิลโฆษะ		aspirated
voiced
ธนิตโฆษะ		nasal
นาสิก
velar ká [ka] khá [kha] ka᷇ [ga] kha᷇ [gha] nga᷇ [ṅa]
palatal cá [ca] sá [cha] ca᷇ [ja] sa᷇ [jha] nya᷇ [ña]
retroflex tá [ṭa] thá [ṭha] da᷇ [ḍa] tha᷇ [ḍha] na᷇ [ṇa]
dental tá [ta] thá [tha] ta᷇ [da] tha᷇ [dha] na᷇ [na]
labial pá [pa] phá [pha] pa᷇ [ba] pha᷇ [bha] ma᷇ [ma]
tone classHL

Uncategorized (อวัคค์ ᩋᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼ avagga)
glottalpalatalretroflexdentallabialtonal class
nya᷇ [ya] ha᷇ [ra] la᷇ [la] wa᷇ [va]L
sá [śa] sá [ṣa] sá [sa]H
há [ha]

Unicode

Tai Tham script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 2009 with the release of version 5.2.

Block
Main article: Tai Tham (Unicode block)

The Unicode block for Tai Tham is U+1A20–U+1AAF:

Tai Tham[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
 0123456789ABCDEF
U+1A2x ᨠ ᨡ ᨢ ᨣ ᨤ ᨥ ᨦ ᨧ ᨨ ᨩ ᨪ ᨫ ᨬ ᨭ ᨮ ᨯ
U+1A3x ᨰ ᨱ ᨲ ᨳ ᨴ ᨵ ᨶ ᨷ ᨸ ᨹ ᨺ ᨻ ᨼ ᨽ ᨾ ᨿ
U+1A4x ᩀ ᩁ ᩂ ᩃ ᩄ ᩅ ᩆ ᩇ ᩈ ᩉ ᩊ ᩋ ᩌ ᩍ ᩎ ᩏ
U+1A5x ᩐ ᩑ ᩒ ᩓ ᩔ ᩕ  ᩖ ᩗ  ᩘ  ᩙ  ᩚ  ᩛ  ᩜ  ᩝ  ᩞ
U+1A6x   ᩠  ᩡ  ᩢ ᩣ ᩤ  ᩥ  ᩦ  ᩧ  ᩨ  ᩩ  ᩪ  ᩫ  ᩬ ᩭ ᩮ ᩯ
U+1A7x ᩰ ᩱ ᩲ  ᩳ  ᩴ  ᩵  ᩶  ᩷  ᩸  ᩹  ᩺  ᩻  ᩼  ᩿
U+1A8x ᪀ ᪁ ᪂ ᪃ ᪄ ᪅ ᪆ ᪇ ᪈ ᪉
U+1A9x ᪐ ᪑ ᪒ ᪓ ᪔ ᪕ ᪖ ᪗ ᪘ ᪙
U+1AAx ᪠ ᪡ ᪢ ᪣ ᪤ ᪥ ᪦ ᪧ ᪨ ᪩ ᪪ ᪫ ᪬ ᪭
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 14.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Fonts
Lanna Alif vs Lanna Unicode UI

There are currently a few fonts that support this range. Thai people are used to typing the Thai script by placing a front vowel before a consonant; this might cause incorrect input method for Tai Tham script because the consonant must be always typed before the associated vowel, regardless of the relative written position of the vowel, similar to typing the Khmer, Myanmar or Tamil script.

  • A Tai Tham KH New – 244 characters in version 1.000 September 15, 2016
    • Ranges: Basic Latin (100); Tai Tham (144)
    • OpenType layout tables: Default
    • Family: Sans-serif
    • Styles: Regular
    • Availability: Free download[16]
  • A Tai Tham KH – 239 characters in version 2.000 February 27, 2016
    • Ranges: Basic Latin (95); Tai Tham (144)
    • OpenType layout tables: Default
    • Family: Sans-serif
    • Styles: Regular
    • Availability: Free download[16]
  • Tai Tham LN – 244 characters in version 1.000 November 15, 2014
    • Ranges: Basic Latin (100); Tai Tham (144)
    • OpenType layout tables: Default
    • Family: Sans-serif
    • Styles: Regular
    • Availability: Free download
  • Chiangsaen Alif – 318 characters (376 glyphs) in version 1.00 February 24, 2010, initial release
    • Ranges:   Basic Latin (96); Tai Tham (127); Geometric Shapes (1)
    • OpenType layout tables:   Latin
    • Family:   Sans-serif
    • Styles:   Regular
    • Availability:   Free download[17]
  • Lanna Alif – 318 characters (376 glyphs) in version 1.00 February 24, 2010, initial release
    • Ranges:   Basic Latin (96); Tai Tham (127); Geometric Shapes (1)
    • OpenType layout tables:   Latin
    • Family:   Sans-serif
    • Styles:   Regular
    • Availability:   Free download[17]
  • Lanna Unicode UI – 374 characters (487 glyphs) in version 0.40 July 14, 2010
    • Ranges:   Basic Latin (25); Latin-1 Supplement (5); Greek and Coptic (1); Tai Tham (127); Mathematical Operators (1); Geometric Shapes (1)
    • OpenType layout tables:   Latin
    • Family:   Sans-serif
    • Styles:   Regular
    • Availability:   Free download[18]
  • Alan Wood's Tai Tham test page[19]

References
  1. Diringer, David (1948). Alphabet a key to the history of mankind. p. 411.
  2. "Proposal for encoding characters for Myanmar minority languages in the UCS" (PDF). International Organization for Standardization. 2006-04-02. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-07-23. Retrieved 2006-07-09.
  3. Hartmann, John F. (1986). "The spread of South Indic scripts in Southeast Asia". Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 3 (1): 6–20. JSTOR 40860228.
  4. Penth, Hans (1986). "On the History of Thai scripts" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. Everson, Michael, Hosken, Martin, & Constable, Peter. (2007). Revised proposal for encoding the Lanna script in the BMP of the UCS.
  6. Natnapang Burutphakdee (October 2004). Khon Muang Neu Kap Phasa Muang [Attitudes of Northern Thai Youth towards Kammuang and the Lanna Script] (PDF) (M.A. Thesis). Presented at 4th National Symposium on Graduate Research, Chiang Mai, Thailand, August 10–11, 2004. Asst. Prof. Dr. Kirk R. Person, adviser. Chiang Mai: Payap University. P. 7, digital image 30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-09. Retrieved June 8, 2013. The reason why they called this language ‘Kammuang’ is because they used this language in the towns where they lived together, which were surrounded by mountainous areas where there were many hill tribe people.
  7. Hundius, Harald; Wharton, David (2010). "The Digital Library of Lao Manuscripts". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. Iijima, Akiko (2009-03-31). "Preliminary Notes on "the Cultural Region of Tham Script Manuscripts"". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ธวัช ปุณโณทก (Punnothek, T.) อักษรโบราณอีสาน: อักขรวิทยาอักษรตัวธรรมและไทยน้อย. กรุงเทพฯ: สยามเพรส แมเนจเม้นท์, ๒๕๔๐, ๕๔
  10. McDaniel, J. (2005). Notes on the lao influence on northern thai buddhist literature. The literary heritage of Laos: Preservation, dissemination, and research perspectives. Vientiane, Laos: Lao National Archives.
  11. Everson, Michael; Hosken, Martin; Constable, Peter (March 21, 2007). "Lanna Unicode: A Proposal" (PDF). Retrieved May 4, 2015.
  12. Burutphakdee, Natnapang (October 2004). "Khon Muang Neu Kap Phasa Muang: Attitudes of Northern Thai Youth towards Kammuang and the Lanna Script" (PDF). SIL International. pp. 32–61. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 5, 2015.
  13. Chew, P., Saengboon, P., & Wordingham, R. (2015). "Tai Tham: A Hybrid Script that Challenges Current Encoding Models". Presented at the Internationalization and Unicode Conference (IUC 39).
  14. In Tai Lue
  15. Omniglot. Lanna alphabet (Tua Mueang). Retrieved 28 April 2019
  16. "Tai Tham Fonts". Kengtung.org. Archived from the original on 29 January 2017.
  17. Silpachai, Alif. "SIMs Heart". Tai Tham (Lanna) Unicode Font. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
  18. "Download: Tai Tham Fonts (Lanna)". Octra Bond's World. Archived from the original on 2010-11-22. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
  19. Wood, Alan. "Test for Unicode support in Web browsers: Tai Tham". Alan Wood’s Unicode Resources. Archived from the original on 14 January 2014. Retrieved 9 May 2016.

Further reading
  • ISO/IEC 10646:2003/Amd.5:2008 Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set (UCS) -- Amendment 5: AMENDMENT 5: Tai Tham, Tai Viet, Avestan, Egyptian Hieroglyphs, CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C, and other characters
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