Rusyn language

Rusyn (/ˈruːsɪn/;[14] Carpathian Rusyn: русиньскый язык, romanized: rusîn'skyj jazyk; Pannonian Rusyn: руски язик, romanized: ruski jazik),[15] also known by the older term, руснацькый язык, rusnac'kyj jazyk, 'Rusnak language',[16][17] is an East Slavic language spoken by Rusyns in several parts of Central and Eastern Europe, and written in the Cyrillic script.[18] The majority of speakers live in an area that spans from Transcarpathia, westward into eastern Slovakia and south-east Poland.[19] There is also a sizeable linguistic island in the Vojvodina, Serbia[19] and a Rusyn diaspora throughout the world.[20][21] Per the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Rusyn is officially recognized as a protected minority language by Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Poland (as Lemko), Serbia, and Slovakia.[10]

Not to be confused with Pannonian Rusyn language, Ruthenian language, or Russian language.
For other uses, see Rusyn.
Rusyn language
русинськый язык; руски язик
rusîns'kyj jazyk; ruski jazik
EthnicityRusyns
Native speakers
623,500 (2000–2006)[1]
Census population: 76,000. These are numbers from national official bureaus for statistics:
Slovakia – 38,679[2]
Serbia – 15,626[3]
Poland – 10,000[4]
Ukraine – 6,725[5]
Croatia – 2,337[6]
Hungary – 1,113[7]
Czech Republic – 777[8]
Early forms
Cyrillic script (Rusyn alphabets)
Latin script (Slovakia)[9]
Official status
Recognised minority
language in
Language codes
ISO 639-3rue
Glottologrusy1239
Linguasphere53-AAA-ec < 53-AAA-e
(varieties: 53-AAA-eca to 53-AAA-ecc)

In the English language, the term Rusyn is recognized officially by the ISO.[22] Other names are sometimes also used to refer to the language, mainly deriving from exonyms such as Ruthenian or Ruthene (UK: /rʊˈθiːn/, US: /ruːˈθiːn/),[23] that have more general meanings, and thus (by adding regional adjectives) some specific designations are formed, such as: Carpathian Ruthenian/Ruthene or Carpatho-Ruthenian/Ruthene.[24]

The categorization of Rusyn as a language or dialect is a source of controversy.[25] Czech, Slovak, and Hungarian, as well as American and some Polish and Serbian linguists treat it as a distinct language[26] (with its own ISO 639-3 code), whereas other scholars (in Ukraine, Poland, Serbia, and Romania) treat it as a Southwestern dialect of Ukrainian.[27]

Geographic distribution

In terms of geographic distribution, Rusyn language is represented by two specific clusters: the first is encompassing Carpathian Rusyn or Carpatho-Rusyn varieties, and the second is represented by Pannonian Rusyn.[28]

Carpathian Rusyn is spoken in:

Pannonian Rusyn is spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns in the region of Vojvodina (in Serbia), and in a nearby region of Slavonia (in Croatia).

History
The Rusyn Language in History

One of the dangers of any enterprise like the codification of a language is the desire to 'see' its history go back as far as possible. This danger affects every single language that may have had difficulties in gaining acceptance of its identity ... A good example is Ukrainian itself ... It was not recognized by ... the 19th century ('great') Russian establishment ... leading to a continued perception ... that Ukrainian was a 'dialect' of Russian ... Such treatment invariably led later Ukrainian scholars ... to refer to the language of those [earliest] features as not only 'old' Ukrainian but 'proto'-Ukrainian ... The desire to see the beginnings of Rusyn as existing before, say, the 18th century is entirely natural - it was clearly in evidence in that century, so the beginnings must have been earlier. In fact, it is possible to see linguistic traces of what we recognize as 'Rusyn' in documents in very early texts - but this is not to say that these texts were written in 'Old Rusyn'. It is safe to say that Rusyn begins to be quite recognizable in a more systematic fashion (in terms of modern Rusyn) by the 18th century. Of course, given the political and social histories of the region, and especially religious history, documents differ according to the region, time, and the (socio-)linguistic milieu in which they were composed - e.g., Church Slavonic, Russian, Latin, etc.

S. M. Pugh, The Rusyn Language, 2009[30]

The Niagovo Postilla (Njagovskie poučenija), dated to 1758, is one of the earliest texts possessing significant phonetic and morphological characteristics of modern Rusyn (specifically the Subcarpathian variant) and is potentially "linguistically traceable" to the 16th century.[31][32]

By the 18th century, the Rusyn language was "clearly in evidence" and "quite recognizable in a more systematic fashion".[33]

The first books produced exclusively for Rusyn readership were printed under the direction of bishop of Mukachevo, Joseph Decamillis (r. 1690 - 1706). Under his direction, the printshop at the University of Trnava published a catechism (Katekhisis dlia naouki Ouhorouskim liudem, 1698) and an elementary language primer (Boukvar’ iazyka slaven’ska, 1699). For decades, these would be the only textbooks available to Rusyn students.[34]

Later, in 1767 Maria Theresa's Urbarium was published throughout the Habsburg Empire in a variety of languages, including Rusyn.[35][36]

Finally, under Bishop Andrei Bachyns’kyi’s tenure (r. 1773 - 1809) in the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo, new texts for Rusyn student readership were published. These several editions of Ioann Kutka's primer and catechism were published in Rusyn vernacular, though with heavy influence from Church Slavonic. [37]

19th century

By the 19th century, "attempts to write in a form of Russo-Church Slavonic with a Rusyn flavor, or a type of 'Subcarpathian Russian' with Rusyn phonetic fatures," began to be made. Notably, Myxajlo Lučkaj's grammar of the Subcarpathian variety of Church Slavonic, Grammatica Slavo-Ruthena, of 1830 had a "distinctly Rusyn flavor". And while Lučkaj did not support use of vernacular as a literary language (commenting on the proper usage of either lingua eruditorum et Communis plebis, 'the languages of the learned and the languages of the common people' in his Praefatio), he did include examples of "Rusyn paradigms" in his work to attempt demonstrate its similarity to Church Slavonic. Lučkaj in effect sought to prove the two languages were close sisters of a common ancestor. [31][38]

In 1847, Greek Catholic priest Alexander Dukhnovych published the first textbook written almost fully in common Rusyn vernacular, Knyzhytsia chytalnaia dlia nachynaiushchykh (A Reader for Beginners).[39]

Classification

The classification of the Rusyn language has historically been both linguistically and politically controversial. During the 19th century, several questions were raised among linguists, regarding the classification of East Slavic dialects that were spoken in the northeastern (Carpathian) regions of the Kingdom of Hungary, and also in neighbouring regions of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. On those questions, three main theories emerged:[40]

  • Some linguists claimed that East Slavic dialects of the Carpathian region should be classified as specific varieties of the Russian language.
  • Other linguists argued that those dialects should be classified as western varieties of a distinctive Ukrainian language.
  • A third group claimed that those dialects are specific enough to be recognized as a distinctive East Slavic language.

In spite of these linguistic disputes, official terminology used by the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy that ruled the Carpathian region remained unchanged. For Austro-Hungarian state authorities, the entire East Slavic linguistic body within the borders of the Monarchy was classified as Ruthenian language (German: ruthenische Sprache, Hungarian: Rutén nyelv), an archaic and exonymic term that remained in use until 1918.[41]

20th century

After the dissolution of Austria-Hungary (1918), the newly proclaimed Hungarian Republic recognized Rusyn regional autonomy in Subcarpathian regions and created, at the beginning of 1919, a department for Rusyn language and literature at the Budapest University.[42]

By the end of 1919, the region of Subcarpathian Ruthenia was appended to the newly formed Czechoslovak state, as its easternmost province. During the next twenty years, linguistic debates were continued between the same three options (pro-Russian, pro-Ukrainian, and local Rusyn), with Czechoslovak state authorities occasionally acting as arbiters.[43]

In March 1939, the region proclaimed independence under the name Carpatho-Ukraine, but it was immediately occupied and annexed by Hungary. The region was later occupied (1944) and annexed (1945) by the Soviet Union, and incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR,[44] which proceeded with implementation of Ukrainian linguistic standards. In Soviet Ukraine, Rusyns were not recognized as a distinctive ethnicity, and their language was considered a dialect of Ukrainian language. Poland employed similar policies,[45] using internal deportations to move many Eastern Slavs from southeastern to newly acquired western regions (Operation Vistula),[46] and switch their language to Polish, and Ukrainian at school.

During that period, the only country that was officially recognizing the Rusyn minority and its language was Yugoslavia.[47]

Post-Soviet Developments
Official usage of Pannonian Rusyn in Vojvodina, Serbia.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, modern standards of minority rights were gradually applied throughout the Eastern Europe, thus affecting the attitude of several states towards the Rusyn language. As successors of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Croatia continued to recognize the Rusyn language as an official minority language.[48]

Scholars with the former Institute of Slavic and Balkan Studies in Moscow (now the Institute of Slavonic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences) formally acknowledged Rusyn as a separate language in 1992, and trained specialists to study the language.[49] These studies were financially supported by the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Since 1995, Rusyn has been recognized as a minority language in Slovakia, enjoying the status of an official language in municipalities where more than 20 percent of the inhabitants speak Rusyn.[50]

Contemporary status

Ukrainian state authorities do not recognize Rusyns as a separate ethnicity, regardless of Rusyn self-identification. Ukraine officially considered Rusyn a dialect of Ukrainian. In 2012, Ukraine adopted a new law, recognizing Rusyn as one of several minority and regional languages, but that law was revoked in 2014.[51]

Rusyn is recognized as an officially protected, minority language by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2011), Croatia (1997), Hungary (1998), Romania (2008), Poland (as Lemko, 2009), Serbia (2006), and Slovakia (2002).[10]

It is not possible to estimate accurately the number of fluent speakers of Rusyn; however, their number is estimated in the tens of thousands.

Grammars and codification

Early grammars include Dmytrij Vyslockij's (Дмитрий Вислоцкий) Карпаторусский букварь (Karpatorusskij bukvar') Vanja Hunjanky (1931),[52] Metodyj Trochanovskij's Буквар. Перша книжечка для народных школ. (Bukvar. Perša knyžečka dlja narodnıx škol.) (1935).,[53][54] and Ivan Harajda (1941).[21] The archaic Harajda's grammar is currently promoted in the Rusyn Wikipedia, although part of the articles are written using other standards (see below).

Currently, there are three codified varieties of Rusyn:

  • The Prešov variety in Slovakia (ongoing codification since 1995[55]). A standard grammar was published in 1995 by Vasyl Jabur, Anna Plíšková and Kvetoslava Koporová. Its orthography is largely based on Zhelekhivka, a late 19th century variety of the Ukrainian alphabet.
  • The Lemko variety in Poland. A standard grammar and dictionary were published in 2000 by Mirosława Chomiak and Henryk Fontański, with a second edition being issued in 2004.[56][57]
  • The Pannonian Rusyn variety in Serbia and Croatia. It is significantly different from the above two in vocabulary and grammar features. It was first standardized in 1923 by G. Kostelnik. The modern standard has been developed since the 1980s by Julian Ramač, Helena Međeši and Mihajlo Fejsa (Serbia), and Mihály Káprály (Hungary).

Though an official standard does not exist for the Subcarpathian Rusyn variety, M. Alamašij's and Igor Kerča's Materyns'kyj jazyk - pysemnycja rusyns'koho jazyka, serves as the de facto standard. Published in 1999, with a second edition published in 2004, and a 58,000 word Rusyn-Russian dictionary in 2007, Kerča's work is used by prominent Rusyn publishers in Uzhorod, albeit with variations between published works that are typical of the spoken language.[58][59]

Apart from these codified varieties, there are publications using a mixture of these standards (most notably in Hungary and in Transcarpathian Ukraine), as well as attempts to revitalize the pre-war etymological orthography with old Cyrillic letters (most notably ѣ, or yat'); the latter can be observed in multiple edits in the Rusyn Wikipedia, where various articles represent various codified varieties.

Phonology

Consonants
Labial Dental/
Alveolar		 Post-
alveolar		 Velar Glottal
hard soft hard soft
Nasal m n nʲ
Stop voiceless p t tʲ k
voiced b d dʲ ɡ
Affricate voiceless t͡s t͡sʲ t͡ʃ
voiced d͡z d͡zʲ d͡ʒ
Fricative voiceless f s sʲ ʃ (ʃʲ) x h
voiced v z zʲ ʒ (ʒʲ)
Rhotic r rʲ
Approximant lateral l lʲ
central (w)[lower-alpha 1] j
  1. The [w] sound only exists within alteration of [v]. However, in the Lemko variety, the [w] sound also represents the non-palatalized L, as is the case with the Polish ł.

A soft consonant combination sound [ʃʲt͡ʃʲ] exists more among the northern and western dialects. In the eastern dialects the sound is recognized as [ʃʲʃʲ], including the area on which the standard dialect is based. It is noted that a combination sound like this one, could have evolved into a soft fricative sound [ʃʲ].[60]

Vowels
Front Central Back
Close i u
ɪ ɤ
Mid ɛ o
Open a
  • /ɪ/ and /ɤ/ tend to be more towards centralized as [ɪ̈], [ɤ̈].[61]

Grammar

Noun declension

Declension in Rusyn is based on grammatical number, gender, and case. Like English, only two types of grammatical number are expressed: singular and plural. And like other Slavic languages, Rusyn has three grammatical genders: feminine, masculine, and neuter. Furthermore, like those languages, Rusyn uses a seven-case system of nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, locative, instrumental, and vocative cases.[62]

One final point of note is that the masculine gender (and only the masculine gender) is further subdivided into animate and inanimate types. While there are no suffixes specific to animacy, declension between the two differs in that for animates, the form of the accusative case copies that of the genitive case.[62]

Grammatical cases

As mentioned in the preceding section, Rusyn cases are similar to those of other Slavic languages. A very general summary of usage is given in the table below, though proper usage depends on a particular situation, prepositions, and verbs used, as well as other extenuating circumstances.[62]

Cases in Rusyn
Full name (Rusyn) Case General Usage
номінатів nominative Subjects
акузатів accusative Direct objects
ґенітів genitive Possession or belonging
датів dative Indirect objects
локал locative Concerning location. Only used with prepositions such as "in", "on", etc.
інштрументал instrumental Concerning "means by which".
вокатів vocative Used to address another.

Nouns will generally decline differently to indicate each case (e.g. English they/them/their/theirs). Based on how they decline, nouns can be grouped into one of four "types".

  • Type I: feminine nouns ending in -а/-я in the nominative singular
  • Type II:
    • masculine nouns ending in a consonant in the nominative singular
    • neuter and masculine nouns ending in a consonant or -o in the nominative singular
    • neuters ending in -e or -а/-я in the nominative singular
  • Type III:
  • Type IV: neuter nouns ending in -а/-я in the nominative singular

Declension type I: feminines ending in -а/-я

This type consists of grammatically feminine nouns ending in -а (hard) or -я (soft) in the nominative case. The table below includes four examples of such nouns. The first two represent the archetypal feminine paradigm, while the second two represent a "common" or "two-fold gender" paradigm.

It is important to note that this second paradigm has atypical dative, locative, and instrumental singular suffixes which are actually representative of the male/neuter declension paradigm (visible later in this article). According to Pugh, this peculiarity developed as a result of the societal roles of "judge" and "elder" being traditionally patriarchal. This phenomenon is in contrast to grammatically feminine nouns of ambiguous gender where a particular role was not historically male-oriented, such as сирота, orphan. In these cases, the typical feminine paradigm is maintained.[63]

Feminine Nouns Ending in -а/-я in the Nominative Singular[63]
Archetypal Feminine Common/Two-Fold Gender
HardSoftHardSoft
Sg. Nominative школаземлястаростусудця
Accusative школу землюстаростусудцю
Genitive школыземлїстаростысудцї
Dative школїземлїстаростовисудцёви
Locative школїземлистаростовисудцёви
Instrumental школов [lower-alpha 1]землёв [lower-alpha 1]старостов
старостом		судцём
Vocative школоземлёстаростосудцё
Pl. Nominative школыземлїстаростове
старосты		судцёве
судцї
Accusative школыземлїстаростівсудцїв
Genitive школземльстарост
старостів		судцїв
Dative школамземлямстаростам
старостім		судцям
судцїм
Locative школамземляхстаростах
старостох		судцях
Instrumental школамиземлямистаростамисудцями
English schoolearthelderjudge
  1. -ов is pronounced as in English owe.

Declension type II: masculines and neuters

This declension type encompasses a very large set of vocabulary as it contains nouns of both masculine and neuter genders, hard and soft stems, as well as animate and inanimate beings (for the masculine gender).[64]

Masculines ending in consonants

This declension contains a large amount of identical forms (syncretism) between cases. Depending on the noun, the number of distinct forms may number from as few as 3 to as many as 6. For singular animate nouns, there is a single form for the accusative and genitive cases, as well as a single form for the dative and locative cases. Similarly, singular inanimate nouns share a form for nominative and locative cases.[65]

Masculine Nouns Ending in a Consonant in the Nominative Singular[65]
Animate Inanimate
Hard Soft Hard Soft
Sg. Nominative сын учітель стіл край
Accusative сына учітеля
Genitive [lower-alpha 1][65] стола краю
Dative сынови учітелёви столу краю
Locative столї краю
Instrumental сыном учітелём стілом краём
Vocative сыну учітелю столе краю
Pl. Nominative сынове учітелї столы краї
Accusative сынів учітелїв столы краї
Genitive сынів учітелїв столы краї
Dative сынам
сынім		 учітелям
учітелїм		 столам
столім		 краям
країм
Locative сынох
сынах		 учітелях
учітелёх		 столох
столах		 краях
краёх
Instrumental сынами учітелями столами краями
English son teacher table area, region
  1. For this declension, nouns may decline with either -u or -a. Use of one or the other depends on whether the concept or object is (very generally) abstract or tangible in nature. For instance, Pugh provides the following examples for the former: "anger, pain, reason, sugar, tea"; and the following for the latter: "table, nose, knife, et al."
Neuters or masculines ending in -o, neuters ending in -e or -а/-я

The following table demonstrates the declension paradigm for nouns with hard stems which end in -o in the nominative case. Though there are some masculine nouns in this category, these nouns are predominantly neuter.

Neuter or Masculine Nouns (with Hard Stems) Ending in -o in the Nominative Singular[66]
Masculine Neuter
Inanimate Animate
Sg. Nominative домиско дїдо село
Accusative доміиіско дїда[lower-alpha 1] село
Genitive домиска дїда села
Dative домиску дїдови селу
Locative[lower-alpha 2] домиску дїдови селї
Instrumental домиском дїдом селом
Vocative домиско дїду село
Pl. Nominative домиска дїдове села
Accusative домиска дїдів села
Genitive домиск дїдів сел
Dative домискам дїдам селам
Locative домисках/

домискох

 дїдах/

дїдох

 селах
Instrumental домисками дїдами селами
English large house, building grandfather village
  1. This follows the typical masculine animate paradigm where the genitive takes the place of the accusative.
  2. For the locative case, there are three possible suffixes: -ovy for animates, -i for inanimates (either masculine or neuter), and -u for stems ending in velar or soft consonants.
Neuter Nouns (with Soft Stems) Ending in -e and -а/-я in the Nominative Singular[67]
Soft in Nominative Hard in Nominative [lower-alpha 1]
Sg. Nominative условієзначіня[lower-alpha 2]полесердце
Accusative условієзначіняполесердце
Genitive условіязначіняполясердця
Dative условіюзначінюполюсердцю
Locative условієу/ условіїзначіню/ значінїплю/ полёсердцю/ сердцї
Instrumental условіёмзначінёмполёмсердцём
Pl. Nominative условіязначіняполясердця
Accusative условіязначіняполясердця
Genitive условієзначіньпольсердець/ сердць
Dative условіямзначінямполямсердцям
Locative условіяхзначіняхполяхсердцях
Instrumental условіямизначінямиполямисердцями
English condition meaning field heart
  1. Over time, soft consonants before -e have hardened in Rusyn.
  2. This suffix changed over time from -e to -a.

Declension type III: other feminines

All nouns in this type are feminine. The paradigm can be identified by the following suffixes in the nominative singular case: a paired consonant (-cons.+ь),[lower-roman 1] an unpaired palato-alveolar consonant (-ш, -ч, щ, -ж, or -дж),[lower-roman 2] or the suffix -ов. Additionally, the noun мати, maty, 'mother' is also part of this type.

Feminine Nouns Ending in a Consonant and 'Mati'[69]
Paired Cons.Palato-Alveolar Cons.-овмати
Sg. Nominative тїньнічмышцерковмати/ матїрь
Accusative тїньнічмышцерковматїрь
Genitive тїниночмышыцерквиматери
Dative тїниночмышіцерквиматери
Locative тїниночмышіцерквиматери
Instrumental [lower-alpha 1] тїнёвночовмышовтерковлёвматїрёв
Pl. Nominative тїниночмышыцерквиматери
Accusative тїниночмышыцерквиматери
Genitive тїнейночеймышейцерквейматерей
Dative тїнямночаммышамцерквамматерям
Locative тїняхночахмышахцерквахматерях
Instrumental тїняминочамимышамицерквамиматерями
English shadownightmousechurchmother
  1. The declension for all feminine nouns in the instrumental case is the same (-ов) across all declension types.

Declension type IV: neuters ending in -а/-я

This declension paradigm is used very rarely. It entirely consists of grammatically neuter nouns. This paradigm can be identified by the -a suffix in the nominative and accusative cases, as well as the appearance of the affix -t- between the stem and suffix in other cases. There is no variation in this paradigm: all nouns decline in an identical manner.[70]

Type IV is predominantly made up of words referring to the young of animals and humans. However, this should not be taken as a hard rule as some nouns which historically declined differently (e.g. вымя, vŷmja, 'udder' and горня, hornja, 'cup, mug'), now decline according to this paradigm instead.[70]

Neuter Nouns Ending in -a and -я[71]
Sg. Nominative гусягачавымя/ вымня
Accusative гусягачавымя/ вымня
Genitive гусятигачативымяти/ вымняти
Dative гусятигачативымяти/ вымняти
Locative гусятигачативымяти/ вымняти
Instrumental гусятёмгачатёмвымятём/ вымнятём
Pl. Nominative гусятагачатавымята/ вымнята
Accusative гусятагачатавымята/ вымнята
Genitive гусятагачатавымята/ вымнята
Dative гусятамгачатамвымятам/ вымнятам
Locative гусятахгачатахвмятах/ вмнятах
Instrumental гусятамигачатамивымятами/ вымнятами
English goslingcolt, foaludder

    Verbal conjugation

    Verbs may be divided into two major conjugation types, which may be identified based on the "stem-marker" that appears during conjugation. Unfortunately, the infinitive verb forms are often ambiguous and as such, there is no general system that allows an infinitive to be identified as either Type I or Type II. Some infinitive suffixes, however, are unique to at least Type I, i.e. -ути, -овати, -нути, etc. In the following sections, the stem-markers are given in Latin as Cyrillic often obscures the markers in the conjugated forms.[72]

    Conjugation type I

    Type I may be divided into several sub-types, the most notable of which are the vowel+j stem-markers: -uj-, -ij-, -yj-, etc. It is important to remember that in the infinitive and some conjugations that the consonant, -j-, is truncated when followed by another consonant, e.g. -aj-ty → -a-ty.[73]

    UJ stem markers

    The -uj- set of verbs can be divided into two groups based the presence of the suffixal markers -ova- or -uj- in the infinitive. The former group representing the overwhelming majority of verbs in this type.[74]

    Conjugation of Verbs with -UJ- Stem Marker[75]
    -OVA- -UTY
    HardSoftHard
    Infinitive бісїдоватионовлёватичути
    Sg. 1st Person (I) бісїдуюоновлюючую
    2nd Person (you) бісїдуєшоновлюєчуєш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) бісїдуєоновлюєчує
    Pl. 1st Person (we) бісїдуємеоновлюємечуєме
    2nd Person (you all) бісїдуєтеоновлюєтечуєте
    3rd Person (they) бісїдуютьоновлюютьчують
    English to speak to renew to hear
    IJ stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -IJ- Stem Marker[76]
    Infinitive зеленїтимолодїти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) зеленїюмолодїю
    2nd Person (you) зеленїєшмолодїєш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) зеленїємолодїє
    Pl. 1st Person (we) зеленїємемолодїєме
    2nd Person (you all) зеленїєтемолодїєте
    3rd Person (they) зеленїютмолодїют
    English to turn green to grow young
    YJ stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -YJ- Stem Marker[77]
    Infinitive витипити
    Sg. 1st Person (I) виюпию
    2nd Person (you) виєшпиєш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) виєпиє
    Pl. 1st Person (we) виємепиєме
    2nd Person (you all) виєтепиєте
    3rd Person (they) виютпиют
    English to wind to drink
    ЫJ stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -ЫJ- Stem Marker[78]
    Infinitive крытишыти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) крыюшыю
    2nd Person (you) крыєшшыєш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) крыєшыє
    Pl. 1st Person (we) крыємешыєме
    2nd Person (you all) крыєтешыєте
    3rd Person (they) крыютшыют
    English to cover to sew
    A(J) stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -A(J)- Stem Marker[79]
    -ATY -ЫVA-
    Infinitive чітатиматиодкрывати
    Sg. 1st Person (I) чітаммамодкрывам
    2nd Person (you) чіташмашодкрываш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) чітатьматьодкрывать
    Pl. 1st Person (we) чітамемамеодкрываме
    2nd Person (you all) чітатематеодкрывате
    3rd Person (they) чітаютьмаютьодкрывають
    English to read to have to discover
    AVA stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -AVA- Stem Marker[80]
    -AVA--AJ--AVA--AJ-
    Infinitive даватиузнавати
    Sg. 1st Person (I) давамдаюузнавамузнаю
    2nd Person (you) давашдаєшузнавашузнаєш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) даватьдаєузнаватьузнає
    Pl. 1st Person (we) давамедамеузнавамеузнаме
    2nd Person (you all) даватедатеузнаватеьзнате
    3rd Person (they) даваютьдаютьузнаваютьузнають
    English to give
    A stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -A- Stem Marker[81]
    Infinitive пичатиуказатискататипослатинасыпати
    Sg. 1st Person (I) пишуукажускачупошлюнасылплю
    2nd Person (you) пишешукажешскачупошлюнасыплеш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) пишеукажескачепошлюнасыпле
    Pl. 1st Person (we) пишемеукажемескачемепошлеменасыплеме
    2nd Person (you all) пишетеукажетескачетепошлетенасыплете
    3rd Person (they) пишутьукажутьскачутьпошлютьнасыплють
    English to write to show to hop or jump to send to strew
    NU stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -NU- Stem Marker[82]
    Infinitive вернутипривыкнути
    Sg. 1st Person (I) вернупривыкну
    2nd Person (you) вернешпривыкнеш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) вернепривыкне
    Pl. 1st Person (we) вернемепривыкнеме
    2nd Person (you all) вернетепривыкнете
    3rd Person (they) вернутьпривыкнуть
    English to returnto become accustomed to
    Non-syllabic stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with Non-Syllabic Stem Markers[83]
    CCV-ty > CVC-CCV-ty > CVCC-CV-ty > CC-CVC-ty > CC-CCV-ty > CC-
    Infinitive бративзятижатизачативынятидертирвати
    Sg. 1st Person (I) верубозьмужнузачнувыймудрурву
    2nd Person (you) верешбозьешжнешзачешвыймешдрешрвеш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) веребозьежнезачевыймедрервеш
    Pl. 1st Person (we) времебозьемежнемезачемевыймемедремервеме
    2nd Person (you all) вретебозьетежнетезачетевыйметедретервете
    3rd Person (they) врутьбозьутьжнутьзачутьвыумутьдрутьрвуть
    English to taketo taketo reapto beginto draw or pull outto thrash or whipto tear
    Consonant stems
    Conjugation of Verbs With Stems Ending in Consonants[84]
    Infinitive нестивеститечімочіітилячі
    Sg. 1st Person (I) несуведутечуможуідуляжу
    2nd Person (you) несешведештечешможешідешляжеш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) несеведетечеможеіделяже
    Pl. 1st Person (we) несемеведеметечемеможемеідемеляжеме
    2nd Person (you all) несетеведететечетеможетеідетеляжете
    3rd Person (they) несутьведутьтечутьможутьідутьляжуть
    English to carryto leadto flowto be ableto goto lie down
    Y(1) type
    Conjugation of Y(1) Type Verbs[85]
    Infinitive говоритипилитиглыти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) говопилюглушу
    2nd Person (you) говоришпилишглушыш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) говоритьпилитьглушыть
    Pl. 1st Person (we) говоримепилимеглушым
    2nd Person (you all) говоритепилмеглушыте
    3rd Person (they) говотьпилятьглушать
    English to say or speakto saw (wood)to muffle, stifle or make quiet
    Y(2) type
    Conjugation of Y(2) Type Verbs[85]
    Infinitive бозитигаситипатитипуститиходити
    Sg. 1st Person (I) божугашупачупущуходжу
    2nd Person (you) бозишгасишгатишпустишходиш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) бозитьгаситьгатитьпуститьходить
    Pl. 1st Person (we) бозимегасимегатимепустимеходиме
    2nd Person (you all) бозитегаситегатитепуститеходите
    3rd Person (they) бозятьгатятьгатятьпустятьходять
    English to take by vehicleto put out or extinguishto erect a dam or barrierto admit or allow into go or walk

    Alphabet

    Each of the Rusyn standard varieties has its own Cyrillic alphabet. The table below shows the Rusyn alphabet of the Prešov Standard, with notes on other varieties. The alphabets of the other Carpathian Rusyn varieties, Lemko Rusyn and Subcarpathian Rusyn, differ from the Prešov Standard in lacking ё and ї. For the Pannonian Rusyn alphabet, see Pannonian Rusyn language § Alphabet.{{cn}

    Romanization (transliteration) is given according to ALA-LC,[86] BGN/PCGN,[87] generic European, ISO/R9 1968 (IDS),[88] and ISO 9.

    CapitalSmallNameRomanizationPronunciation
    ALABGNEuroIDSISO
    Ааa aaaaa/a/ (listen)
    Ббб bbbbb/b/ (listen)
    Вввы vvvvv/v/ (listen)
    Гггы hhhhh/ɦ/ (listen)
    Ґґґы ggggg/ɡ/ (listen)
    Ддды ddddd/d/ (listen)
    Ееe eeeee/ɛ/ (listen)
    Єєє i͡ejeje/'ejeê/je, ʲe/
    Ё [a][b]ёё ëjojo/'oë/jo, ʲo/
    Жжжы z͡hžžžž/ʒ/ (listen)
    Зззы zzzzz/z/ (listen)
    І [b]іi iIiIì/i/ (listen)
    Ї [a]її ïjiji/'iïï/ji, ʲi/
    И [c]ии i/yyîII/ɪ/ (listen)
    Ы [b]ыы ŷyyy/ŷy/ɨ/ (listen)
    Йййы ĭjjjj/j/ (listen)
    Кккы kkkkk/k/ (listen)
    Лллы lllll/l/ (listen)
    Мммы mmmmm/m/ (listen)
    Ннны nnnnn/n/ (listen)
    Ооo ooooo/ɔ/ (listen)
    Пппы ppppp/p/ (listen)
    Ррры rrrrr/r/ (listen)
    Сссы sssss/s/ (listen)
    Ттты ttttt/t/ (listen)
    Ууу uuuuu/u/ (listen)
    Фффы fffff/f/ (listen)
    Хххы k͡hchchchh/x/ (listen)
    Цццы t͡scccc/t͡s/ (listen)
    Чччы chčččč/t͡ʃ/ (listen)
    Шшшы shšššš/ʃ/ (listen)
    Щщщы shchščščščŝ/ʃt͡ʃ/
    Ююю і͡ujuju/'ujuû/ju, ʲu/
    Яяя i͡ajaja/'ajaâ/ja, ʲa/
    Ь [d]ьмнягкый знак
    (English: soft sign)
    or ірь     		′’'′′/ʲ/
    Ъ [b][e]ътвердый знак (ір) ″’"–″

    Usage notes
    1. 1 2 Not used in Lemko.
    2. 1 2 3 4 Not used in Pannonian Rusyn.
    3. 1 The Pannonian Rusyn alphabet places this letter directly after з, like the Ukrainian alphabet. According to ALA–LC romanization, it is romanized i for Pannonian Rusyn and y otherwise.
    4. 1 "Soft Sign": marks the preceding consonant as palatalized (soft)
    5. 1 "Hard Sign": marks the preceding consonant as NOT palatalized (hard).
    6. In Ukraine, usage is found of the letters о̄ and ӯ.[90][91][92]
    7. Until World War II, the letter ѣ (їть or yat') was used, and was pronounced /ji, ʲi/ or /i/ (listen). This letter is still used in part of the articles in the Rusyn Wikipedia.

    Number of letters and relationship to the Ukrainian alphabet

    The Prešov Rusyn alphabet of Slovakia has 36 letters. It includes all the letters of the Ukrainian alphabet plus ё, ы, and ъ.

    The Lemko Rusyn alphabet of Poland has 34 letters. It includes all the Ukrainian letters with the exception of ї, plus ы and ъ.

    The Pannonian Rusyn alphabet has 32 letters, namely all the Ukrainian letters except і.

    Alphabetical order

    The Rusyn alphabets all place ь after я, as the Ukrainian alphabet did until 1990. The vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place ь before э (if present), ю, and я.

    The Lemko and Prešov Rusyn alphabets place ъ at the very end, while the vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place it after щ. They also place ы before й, while the vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place it after ш, щ (if present), and ъ (if present).

    In the Prešov Rusyn alphabet, і and ї come before и, and likewise, і comes before и in the Lemko Rusyn alphabet (which doesn't have ї). In the Ukrainian alphabet, however, и precedes і and ї, and the Pannonian Rusyn alphabet (which doesn't have і) follows this precedent by placing и before ї.

    The ISO process

    The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has assigned an ISO 639-3 code (rue) for Rusyn language.[93]

    In April 2019, a group of linguists (including Aleksandr Dulichenko), supported a proposal that was addressed to the ISO, requesting suppression of the code (rue) and division of Rusyn language in two distinctive and separate languages, that would be named as: East Rusyn language (designating Carpathian Rusyn varieties), and South Rusyn language (designating Pannonian Rusyn varieties). In January 2020, the ISO authorities rejected the request.[94]

    In November 2020, the same group of linguists, with some additional support, formulated a new proposal, also addressed to the ISO, requesting recognition of a new language, under the proposed name: Ruthenian language (with additional designation as: Rusnak language). According to their proposal, that designation would represent a specific linguistic variety, that was referred to in their previous proposal (from April 2019) as South Rusyn (otherwise known as Pannonian Rusyn, a term not mentioned in either of two proposals). The request is still under deliberation.[95]

    If granted, the pending request from November 2020 would have various implications, both in the fields of ISO classification and terminology. Eventual recognition of the proposed new language would effectively reduce the scope of the present code (rue) to Carpathian varieties of Rusyn language, thus leading to an outcome that was already rejected by ISO authorities in January 2020.[96]

    The proposal from November 2020 did not provide an explanation for terminological transition from initially proposed term South Rusyn (2019) to newly proposed terms Ruthenian and Rusnak (2020).[97] Both terms (Ruthenian and Rusnak) that are claimed for the proposed new language (encompassing only Pannonian varieties of Rusyn language), already have much wider and well established meanings, both in historical and scientific terminology. In the field of Slavistic studies, the term Ruthenian language is used primarily as a common exonymic designation for former East Slavic linguistic varieties that were spoken on the territories of modern Belarus and Ukraine during the late medieval and early modern periods, from the 15th up to the 18th centuries.[98]

    The other term (Rusnak), that was included in the November 2020 proposal as a requested alternative designation for the linguistic variety spoken by Pannonian Rusyns, also has much wider meaning, since it is used by both Pannonian and Carpathian Rusyns as one of several self-designations for their people and language,[16][17] thus revealing the lack of basis for the requested reduction of that term to only one of those groups.

    Newspapers
    • Amerikansky Russky Viestnik (defunct)
    • Besida, a Lemko journal
    • Karpatska Rus'
    • Lem.fm,[99] Gorlice, Poland
    • Lemko, Philadelphia, US (defunct)
    • Narodnȳ novynkȳ (Народны новинкы)
    • Podkarpatská Rus (Подкарпатська Русь)
    • Ruske slovo (Руске слово),[100] Ruski Kerestur, Serbia
    • Rusnatsi u Shvetse (Руснаци у Швеце)[101]
    • Rusynska besida (Русинська бесіда)

    See also

    Notes
    1. The terms "paired" and "unpaired" refer to a consonant’s use with the soft sign, the letter ь. Consonants that can be palatalized with the soft sign are referred to as "paired consonants", as in the case of н/нь. Others that are inherently hard or soft and never appear with ь are referred to as "unpaired consonants", as in the cases of the letters к or ч.[68]
    2. Pugh refers to these collectively as "hushers".

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    Sources

    This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.