Hurrian religion

The Hurrian religion was the polytheistic religion of the Hurrians, a Bronze Age people of the Near East. These people settled over a wide area, so there were differences between them, especially between the eastern Hurrians around Nuzi and Arrapha and the western Hurrians in Syria and Anatolia. From the 14th century BC, the Hurrian religion had a powerful influence on the Hittite religion and the Hurrian pantheon is depicted in the 13th century rock reliefs at the important Hittite sanctuary at Yazılıkaya.

Hurrian incense container

Evidence

The oldest evidence of Hurrian religious life comes from Urkesh (ex. royal inscriptions mentioning the Mesopotamian god Nergal)[1] and dates to the 3rd millennium BCE.[2]

Among the richest sources is the material from the Hittite archives of the Hittite capital of Hattusa,[3] which is partially composed of Hurrian language texts and partially of Hurrian works translated into the Hittite language.[4] Several Hurrian ritual texts survive from Ugarit, there are also references to Hurrian gods in some Akkadian sources from that city.[5] The Amarna letters from King Tushratta of Mitanni and the treaty documents provide evidence about the Hurrian-influenced religion practiced in the Mitanni kingdom.[6] The archives of individual Syrian cities, like Emar, Mari and Alalakh, also contain Hurrian texts.[7] The evidence from eastern Hurrians is comparatively rare, though documents from Nuzi allude to distinct customs such as ancestor worship[8] and maintaining sacred groves.[9]

Evidence from Urartu in most cases cannot be used in the study of Hurrian religion, as the connection between it and bronze age Hurrian states is almost exclusively linguistic and doesn't extend to cult.[10]

Gods
The west Hurrian divine pantheon, with Tašmiš, Teššub, Ḫebat, Šarruma, Allanzu and Kunzišalli, rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya.

The Hurrians worshipped a great number of gods derived from various different cultures, especially Mesopotamia and Syria. Many gods were syncretised with Mesopotamian and Syrian deities over time; for example, Šauška was identified with Ishtar of Nineveh, Teššub with the Weather god of Aleppo, Kušuḫ with the moon god Sîn von Ḫarran and the Sun god Šimige with Šamaš of Sippar.[11] This syncretism also embraced the native partners of the gods, like the Syrian Ḫebat as wife of Teššub among the western Hurrians, Nikkal as wife of the moon god, and Aya as wife of the sun god.

The chief god of the Hurrians was the weather god Teššub. All of the Hurrians also worshiped Šauška, deity of love and war depicted both in feminine and masculine forms (though usually described as a goddess in myths), the fertility-god Kumarbi, the moon god Kušuḫ and the sun god Šimige.[12] Only the western Hurrians worshipped Ḫebat and her son Šarruma, who were of Syrian origin.

Other important deities were the fate goddesses Ḫudena Ḫudellura, the Syrian oath-goddess Ishara, queen of the dead Allani, the tutelary goddess of Carchemish Kubaba, war god Aštabi, as well as the Mesopotamian god of wisdom, Ea (Eya-šarri), and the death god Ugur, originally a sukkal of the Mesopotamian Nergal.[13][14] The god Nupatik (also spelled Lubadag, Lubadig, Nupadig[15]), is known from many cultic texts, but his purpose is uncertain.[16] Nergal himself appears often in Hurrian documents but his name might instead be used to refer to a local god.[17] Resheph appears in Hurrian texts under the name Aršappa or Iršappa, often with the epithet "(tutelary god) of the market."[18]

Additionally the Elamite goddess Pinikir became a part of the Hurrian pantheon under uncertain circumstances and is attested as far west as Kizzuwatna in Hurrian or Hurro-Hittite context.[19][20][21] Another foreign deity of neither Mesopotamian nor Syrian origin worshiped by at least some Hurrian communities was the Kassite god Ḫarbe.[22]

At least among the western Hurrians, the gods were divided into male and female groups, as is clear in the kaluti lists from Hattusa. The male gods (enna turroḫena) were led by Teššub in his various manifestations, while the female gods (enna aštoḫena) were led by Ḫebat and her children. The order of the gods and goddesses in these lists is not entirely fixed, but lists of gods from Hattusa, Alepp and Ugarit show clear similarities. Also, the presence of groups of gods, especially the father gods (enna attenevena) is shared in these lists.[23] No similar lists of gods are known from the eastern Hurrian area.

Dyads

Dyads or double gods sharing a single cult are also typical of the Hurrians. For example Ḫebat and her son Šarruma formed the dyad Ḫebat-Šarruma.[24] Other such pairs were Hutena and Hutellura, Ninatta and Kulitta, Allani and Ishara,[25] Kubaba and Adamma (originally Resheph's wife in Ebla)[26] and Pinikir and the enigmatic cthtonic figure DINGIR.GE6 (so-called Goddess of the Night, possibly a hypostasis of Ishtar).[27]

Sukkals

The Mesopotamian concept of sukkal, a "divine vizier" serving a specific more prominent deity, was incorporated into Hurrian religion as well, with the word itself loaned from Akkadian to Hurrian.[28] Teshub's sukkal Tašmišu,[29] Hebat's messenger Takiti (or Takitu),[30] Shaushka's handmaidens Ninatta and Kulitta[31][32] and Kumarbi's servant Mukišanu[33][34] all play prominent role in myths of the Kumarbi cycle, and were objects of religious cult as well.

Šarrēna

A special class of figures venerated by the Hurrians were so-called šarrēna.[35] While it's possible to translate it simply as "deified kings," Mary R. Bachvarova proposed the more poetic translation "heroes from far away and long ago."[36] Like the names of gods, the names of šarrēna and the term itself were written with the so-called "divine determinative." The word differed from that used to refer to regular kings, ewri.[37]

Examples of šarrēna include well known mythical rulers (Gilgamesh), prominent historical conquerors (Sargon, Naram-Sin), antagonists from the cycle of Kumarbi ("Silver", Hedammu)[38] and otherwise completely unknown figures, such as Autalumma of Elam, Immašku of Lullue and Kiklip-atal of Tukriš.[39] Much like Elam and Lullue, Tukriš was located to the east of Mesopotamia;[40] in documents from Mari it's regarded as a source of precious metals and stones. All 3 of these areas were located in Iran or central Asia.[41] However, Kiklip-atal's name is nonetheless Hurrian.[42][43]

List of Hurrian deities
Mesopotamian equivalentSyrian or Ugaritic equivalentHittite or Luwian equivalentFunctionsNotes
TeshubIshkur/Hadad[44]Addu of Aleppo;[45] Baal of Ugarit[46]Tarhunna[47]Weather god, king of gods[48]In Egypt Seth was identified with foreign storm gods like Teshub[49]
HebatHalabadu from 3rd millennium BCE Eblaite sources[50]Sun goddess of Arinna[51][52]Mother goddess, spouse of Teshub[53]Originally the spouse of the storm god of Aleppo[54]
ŠauškaInanna/Ishtar[55]Ashtart[56]possibly Anzili[57]Goddess of love, war and healing[58]Had both a feminine and masculine aspect and in Yazilikaya appears twice, both with gods and goddesses[59][60]
KumarbiEnlil;[61] in one case possibly Ishtaran[62]Dagan;[63] El[64]Halki[65]Cthtonic god of cereals;[66] father of gods[67]Kumarbi's cult survived in Neo-Assyrian times in the city Taite (Taidi).[68] As a god of that location he appears in an Assyrian takultu text, alongside two other Hurrian deities, Nabarbi and Samanuha.[69]
ŠimigeUtu/Shamash;[70] Lugalbanda[71]Sun god of HeavenSun godMesopotamian Aya (Ayu-Ikalti) was regarded as his spouse[72]
KušuḫNanna/SuenYarikhArma[73]Moon godIn Hittite context also a guardian of oaths;[74] Mesopotamian Ningal was regarded as his spouse[75]
AllaniEreshkigal[76]Arsay (reasoning behind the equation is unknown)[77] Sun goddess of the Earth[78][79]Queen of the deadKnown in Mesopotamia under the name Allatu; Allatu treated as different deity by the Hittites was equated with Lelwani[80]
IsharaIshtarAshtart[81]Guardian of oaths; love goddess; cthtonic deity[82][83]Originally a goddess from Ebla of unknown non-Hurrian non-Semitic origin[84]
Kubabapossibly Gubaba from late Assyrian sources[85]Goddess of lawsuits[86] Connected to much later Phrygian Cybele by some scholars in the past (ex. Emmanuel Laroche), though recent research undermines this theory, as Kubaba was neither a mother goddess nor a mountain goddess[87] Connection with the Sumerian queen Kubaba cannot be established either.[88] Most likely one of the "Syrian substratum" deities like Ishara.[89]
NupatikProminent god of uncertain character[90]Also known as Lubadag in earliest Hurrian sources[91][92]
AštabiNinurta; Lugal-marda; ZababaAttar[93]War god[94]Like Ishara originally a god from Ebla of unknown non-Hurrian non-Semitic origin.
ḪešuiZababaWar god[95]
NabarbiPossibly Belet Nagar and Haburitum[96]Possibly a goddess of pastures[97]Attested as the wife of Tašmišu[98]
ŠarrumaMountain godSon of Hebat and Teshub, originally a Syrian god from Hebat's circle[99]
Hutena-HutelluraŠassūrātu[100]Kotharāt[101]Gulšeš[102] A collective of fate, birth and midwifery goddesses[103]
PirengirIshtar;[104] Ninsianna[105]Personification of a celestial body, most likely VenusA Hurrian adaptation of the Elamite Pinikir
AršappaReshephDisease and war god; also a "tutelary god of the market"[106]Hurrianized form of Syrian Resheph rather than a separate deity[107]
AdammaA goddess forming a dyad with KubabaOriginally a spouse of Resheph; however they were only regarded as a couple in sources the 3rd millennium BCE[108]
HayyaEnki/EaGod of wisdomDirect adaptation of the Mesopotamian god, complete with his wife Damkina and sukkal Isimud (Izzumi in Hurrian)[109]
KiašeYam[110]ArunaSea godAlly of Kumarbi in myths[111]
TašmišuNinurta; PapsukkalAštabiŠuwaliyat[112]Sukkal and brother of Teshub[113][114]Aštabi is a distinct figure from him in the Kumarbi cycle
Ninatta and KulittaHandmaidens of Shaushka, described as singers and dancers[115][116]Incorporated into Ishtar's entourage in Ashur[117][118]
TakituSukkal of Hebat[119]
LipparumaBunene[120]Sukkal of Šimige[121][122]
Hurriš and ŠerišBulls pulling Teshub's chariot[123]
MukišānuSukkal of Kumarbi[124]Named after Mukish (Alalakh)[125]
ImpaluriSukkal of Kiaši/Aruna[126][127]
AlaluEnmesharra; Lugaldukuga[128]Father of Kumarbi, cthonic figure[129]Also known as Alala[130]
Ammatina EnnaAnunnaki[131]Karuileš Šiuneš[132] (direct translation of the Hurrian term)"Former gods" residing in the underworldOnly in Hurrian context the term "Anunnaki" had a well defined meaning. Number and names of Ammatina Enna vary. Frequently included are Nara, Namšara, Minki, Ammunki, Napirra, Amizzadu, Tuhuši; sometimes Alalu and Kumarbi; sometimes senior Mesopotamian gods Enlil, Ninlil, Anu and Antu as well.[133]
Enna(-šta) Attna(-šta)"gods the fathers" or "gods of the fathers", undefined divine ancestors[134]also attested in singular form as Eni Attani
TillaA bull god popular in Nuzi[135][136]
DINGIR.GE6 ("Goddess of the Night")possibly IshtarGoddess of the night from Kizzuwatna[137]Only a logographic spelling of the name is known. Formed a dyad with Pinikir.[138]
Pentikalli[139]NinegalBelet EkalliA concubine of Teshub[140][141]
NergalDeath godPossibly a logographic spelling of a local god's name rather than the Mesopotamian Nergal.[142]
ShalashSpouse of KumarbiOriginally the spouse of Dagan, associated with Kumarbi due to syncretism between the two.[143][144] Not attested as Kumarbi's wife in myths.
Hazzi and NamniMountain gods from the retinue of Teshub,[145] possibly Casius and Anti-Casius[146]Fragmentary myths might allude to their rebellion and subsequent defeat[147]
PišašaphiMountain god invoked in oaths[148]
AmmarikStorm god of ArmarukMountain godOriginally part of the pantheon of Ebla, adopted by the Hurrians and then in a distorted form by the Hittites[149]
ŠuwalaA goddess associated with Nabarbi[150] of Syro-Hurrian origin,[151] associated with the northern city Mardaman[152]
MušuniA goddess whose name means "she of justice"[153]
EbrimušaA god whose name means "king of justice"[154]
LelluriHurrian mountain goddess from northern Syria, later worshiped in Kummani in Kizzuwatna[155]
Ugur[156]
HašuntarhiA goddess associated with Kubaba and Adamma.[157]
MilkuTishpakGašaru[158]While Milku was a Hurro-Hittite deity his name is a Semitic loanword[159] Introduced to the local pantheons of northern Hittite towns by Tudḫaliya IV alongside other foreign deities.[160]

Mythology

The Hurrians produced literary accounts of their myths, in which Mesopotamian and Syrian influences are clear. The most important myths form the Kumarbi Cycle, which parallels to a degree the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, which recounts how the Ugaritic weather god Baal became the ruler of the gods. Similarly, the Kumarbi Cycle recounts how Teššub gained his power and made it firm (thus some scholars refer to it as the Teššub Cycle).[161] The cycle begins with the "kingship of Heaven" myth, in which a succession of kings of the gods (Alalu, Anu and Kumarbi) and their battles are quickly described, before recording the conception and birth of Teššub. The following myths recount how Kumarbi generates ever more powerful opponents to destroy Teššub. These include Ušḫuni ("silver"), the water dragon Ḫedammu, and finally the rock monster Ullikummi. There is also the myth of the guardian god, who is temporarily installed as the king of the gods, but neglects the divine offerings. Unfortunately, most of the myths only survive in fragments.

This cycle may have been a source of the myths about the Greek gods recounted in Hesiod's Theogony. The castration of Uranus by Cronus may be derived from the castration of Anu by Kumarbi, while Zeus's overthrow of Cronus and Cronus's regurgitation of the swallowed gods is like the Hurrian myth of Teshub and Kumarbi.[162] It has also been argued that the worship of Attis drew on Hurrian myth.[163]

In addition to the myths, there are also narratives and legends, like the history of Appu and his two sons, "Wrong" and "Right", and the account of the Sun god and the cow.[164]

Cosmology

The Hurrians treated Earth and Heaven as gods (eše ḫavurne), but they were not depicted as anthropomorphic deities.[165] Since creation, they had rested on the shoulders of the giant Ubelluri who is also meant to have separated Earth and Heaven from one another with a copper sickle. In the reliefs of Yazılıkaya two bull-men are depicted standing on the Earth, holding up the heavens. In two Babylonian texts the Hurrian heaven nonetheless appears as a personified deity (dḫa-mu-ur-ni), in one case equated with Anu.[166]

The dead went to the Underworld, which was ruled by the goddess Allani ("the lady"), often called šiduri, "young woman."[167][168][169] The Underworld also housed the "lower gods" (enna turena), such as Alalu. The Hurrians made offerings to these chthonic powers, which they placed in offering pits (abi) dug in the Earth.[170] The term abi was written with a dingir (divine determinative) sometimes.[171]

Practice

The Hurrians built sanctuaries and temples where they worshipped their deities. They deified cult implements, like the incense burners and the offering dishes, as well as divine symbols like the weapons of Teššub and the bed of Ḫebat. Images of the gods were cleaned, anointed, and dressed. A well-attested example of western Hurrian ritual (mixed with Luwian religion) is the Hittite Išuwa festival. The Hurrian gods do not appear to have had particular "home temples", like in the Mesopotamian religion or Ancient Egyptian religion. Some important cult centres were Kummanni in Kizzuwatna, and Hittite Yazilikaya. Harran was at least later a religious centre for the moon god, and Shauskha had an important temple in Nineve, when the city was under Hurrian rule. A temple of Nergal was built in Urkesh in the late third millennium BCE. The town of Kahat was a religious centre in the kingdom of Mitanni.

Magical spells were an important part of religious practice. Rain rituals had a particularly important role. Hurrian magical practices are often very similar to Mesopotamian practices, which is also true of Hurrian divination practices, in which hepatoscopy played an important role.

See also

References
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  85. J. D. Hawkins, Kubaba A. Philologisch · Kubaba A. Philological [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 6, 1983, p. 260-261
  86. A. Archi, The Gods of Ebla [in:] J. Eidem, C.H. van Zoest (eds.), Annual Report NINO and NIT 2010, 2011, p. 7
  87. M. Hutter, Kubaba in the Hittite Empire and the Consequences for her Expansion to Western Anatolia [in:] A. Mouton (ed.), Studies on Hittite and Neo-Hittite Anatolia in Honor of Emmanuel Laroche's 100th Birthday, 2017, p. 113-122
  88. J. D. Hawkins, Kubaba A. Philologisch · Kubaba A. Philological [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 6, 1983, p. 257
  89. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 119
  90. G. Wilhelm, The Hurrians, 1989, p. 55
  91. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 11
  92. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 119
  93. N. Ayali-Darshan, The Role of Aštabi in the Song of Ullikummi and the Eastern Mediterranean "Failed God" Stories Prevalent in the East Mediterranean, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 1(73), 2014, p. 98
  94. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski, (eds.) Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 15-16
  95. A. Kammenhauber, Ḫešui, Ḫišue [in] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 4, 1975, p. 369-370
  96. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 7
  97. V. Haas, Nabarbi [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 9, 1998, p. 1-2
  98. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 121
  99. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 94
  100. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski, (eds.) Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 19
  101. A. Archi, The Anatolian Fate-goddesses and their different traditions [in] E. Cancik-Kirschbaum, J. Klinger, G. G. W. Müller (eds.), Diversity and Standardization. Perspectives on ancient Near Eastern cultural history, 2013, p. 14
  102. A. Archi, The Anatolian Fate-goddesses and their different traditions [in] E. Cancik-Kirschbaum, J. Klinger, G. G. W. Müller (eds.), Diversity and Standardization. Perspectives on ancient Near Eastern cultural history, 2013, p. 12
  103. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 109
  104. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 8
  105. G. Beckman, The Goddess Pirinkir and Her Ritual from Hattusa (CTH 644), KTEMA 24, 1999, p. 27
  106. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 14
  107. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 118
  108. A. Archi, The Gods of Ebla [in:] J. Eidem, C.H. van Zoest (eds.), Annual Report NINO and NIT 2010, 2011, p. 7
  109. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 10
  110. I. Rutherford, The Song of the Sea (SA A-AB-BA SIR). Thoughts on KUB 45.63 [in:] G. Wilhelm (ed.), Akten des IV. International Kongresses für Hethitologie, Würzburg, 4.-8. Oktober 1999, 2001, p. 606
  111. I. Rutherford, The Song of the Sea (SA A-AB-BA SIR). Thoughts on KUB 45.63 [in:] G. Wilhelm (ed.), Akten des IV. International Kongresses für Hethitologie, Würzburg, 4.-8. Oktober 1999, 2001, p. 602
  112. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 45
  113. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 55
  114. M. Dijkstra, Ishtar seduces the Sea-serpent. A New Join in the Epic of Hedammu (KUB 36, 56+95) and its meaning for the battle between Baal and Yam in Ugaritic Tradition, Ugarit-Forschungen 43, 2011, p. 78: "Hurrian war god Astabi, who in turn is often assimilated with Teššup's brother and vizier Tašmišu/Šuwaliya in the Hittite Anatolian world" - also footnote 74: "Perhaps he is also mentioned in the Ugaritic trilingual list An-Anum § 42 as dPAP.SUKKAL [ta-aš]-mi-iš [da-aš-]mi-šu as also in Emar (Laroche, Glossaire, 259) PAP.SUKKAL = dTa-aš-mi-šu-un"
  115. G. Frantz-Szabó, Kulitta, Ninatta und [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 6, 1983, p. 303
  116. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 123
  117. G. Wilhelm, The Hurrians, 1989, p. 52
  118. G. Frantz-Szabó, Kulitta, Ninatta und [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 6, 1983, p. 304
  119. G. Wilhelm, Takitu [in] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 13, 2011, p. 417
  120. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 127
  121. G. Frantz-Szabó, Lipparuma [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 7, 1990, p. 30
  122. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 11
  123. V. Haas, Ḫurri, Šeri und · Ḫurri, Šeri and [in] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 4, 1972, p. 506-507
  124. G. Wilhelm, Mukišānu [in] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 8, 1993, p. 412-413
  125. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 12
  126. G. Frantz-Szabó, Impaluri [in] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 5, 1980, p. 74
  127. H. A. Hoffner, Hittite myths (2nd ed.), 1998, p. 41
  128. W. G. Lambert, Mesopotamian Creation Myths, 2013, p. 302
  129. A. Archi, The Names of the Primeval Gods, Orientalia NOVA SERIES, Vol. 59, No. 2, 1990, p. 120
  130. R. L. Litke, A Reconstruction of the Assyro-Babylonian God-lists, AN:dA-nu-um and AN:Anu Ŝá Amēli, 1998, p. 22-23
  131. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 126
  132. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 125
  133. A. Archi, The Names of the Primeval Gods, Orientalia NOVA SERIES, Vol. 59, No. 2, 1990, p. 114-129
  134. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 16-18
  135. G. Wilhelm, Tilla B. Hethitisch, Hurritisch · Tilla B. Hittite, Hurrian [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 14, 2014, p. 45-46
  136. D. Schwemer, The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Studies: Part II, Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 8(1), 2008, p. 6
  137. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 99
  138. J. L. Miller, Setting Up the Goddess of the Night Separately [in] M. R. Bachvarova, B. J. Collins, I. C. Rutherford (eds), Anatolian Interfaces: Hittites, Greeks and Their Neighbours, 2008, p. 68
  139. A. Archi, The Names of the Primeval Gods, Orientalia NOVA SERIES, Vol. 59, No. 2, 1990, p. 116
  140. H. Behrens, A. Klein, Ninegalla [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 9, 1998, p. 346
  141. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 12-13
  142. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 8; Archi proposes Aštabi
  143. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski, (eds.) Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 14-15
  144. L. Felieu, Two brides for two gods. The case of Šala and Šalaš [in:] W.G.E. Watson (ed.), He unfurrowed his brow and laughed'. Essays in Honour of Professor Nicolas Wyatt, 2007, .p. 91
  145. D. Schwemer, The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Studies: Part II, Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 8(1), 2008, p. 7
  146. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski, (eds.) Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 12
  147. I. Rutherford, The Song of the Sea (SA A-AB-BA SIR). Thoughts on KUB 45.63 [in:] G. Wilhelm (ed.), Akten des IV. International Kongresses für Hethitologie, Würzburg, 4.-8. Oktober 1999, 2001, p. 602
  148. L. J. Miller, Piša(i)šapḫi [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 10, 2005, p. 576-577
  149. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski, (eds.) Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 16
  150. M. C. Trémouille, Šuwala [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 13, 2013, p. 374
  151. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski, (eds.) Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 21
  152. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 119
  153. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 7
  154. A. Archi, The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background [in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.), Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman, 2013, p. 7
  155. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 119-120
  156. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 128
  157. M. Hutter, Kubaba in the Hittite Empire and the Consequences for her Expansion to Western Anatolia [in:] A. Mouton (ed.), Studies on Hittite and Neo-Hittite Anatolia in Honor of Emmanuel Laroche's 100th Birthday, 2017, p. 114
  158. M. Stol, Tišpak [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 14, 2014, p. 66
  159. G. Frantz-Szabó, Milku, Melku [in:] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 8, 1997, p. 207
  160. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 106-107
  161. Piotr Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 92
  162. Güterbock, Hans Gustav: "Hittite Religion"; in Forgotten Religions: Including Some Living Primitive Religions (ed. Vergilius Ferm) (NY, Philosophical Library, 1950), pp. 88–89, 103–104
  163. Suggested by Jane Lightfoot in the Times Literary Supplement 22 July 2005 p 27, in her account of Philippe Borgeaud, Mother of the Gods: from Cybele to the Virgin Mary, Johns Hopkins 2005 ISBN 0-8018-7985-X.
  164. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 128
  165. G. Wilhelm, The Hurrians, 1989, p. 57
  166. W. G. Lambert, An Exotic Babylonian God-List [in:] M. T. Roth, W. Farber, M. W. Stolper, P. von Bechtolsheim (eds.), Studies Presented to Robert D. Biggs, June 4, 2004 From the Workshop of the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, Volume 2, 2007, p. 169
  167. G. Wilhelm, Unterwclt, Unterweltsgottheiten. C. In Anatolien [in] Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 14, 2014, p. 346
  168. A. Archi, The Anatolian Fate-goddesses and their different traditions [in] E. Cancik-Kirschbaum, J. Klinger, G. G. W. Müller (eds.), Diversity and Standardization. Perspectives on ancient Near Eastern cultural history, 2013, p. 16
  169. P. Taracha, Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia, 2009, p. 124
  170. G. Wilhelm, The Hurrians, 1989, p. 56
  171. A. Archi, The Names of the Primeval Gods, NOVA SERIES, Vol. 59, No. 2, 1990, p. 126

Bibliography
  • Emmanuel Laroche: "Teššub, Ḫebat et leur cour." Journal of Cuneiform Studies. Vol. 2, No. 2, 1948, pp. 113–136, doi:10.2307/1359380.
  • Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2009, ISBN 978-3-447-05885-8
  • Ilse Wegner: Hurritische Opferlisten aus hethitischen Festbeschreibungen. Teil 2: Texte für Teššub, Ḫebat und weitere Gottheiten (= Corpus der hurritischen Sprachdenkmäler. Abt. 1: Die Texte aus Boğazköy. Bd. 3). Multigrafica Editrice, Rom 2002, ISBN 88-87345-07-4.
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