Coal power in Turkey

Coal power in Turkey generates between a quarter and a third of the nation's electricity. There are 55 coal-fired power stations with a total capacity of 20 gigawatts (GW).

Yeniköy (pictured), Yatağan and Kemerköy power stations have made Muğla a sulfur dioxide hotspot of air pollution in Turkey.[1][2]

Air pollution from coal-fired power stations is damaging public health.[3]: 48  It is estimated that in 2019, air pollution from coal-fired power stations caused almost 5,000 premature deaths and over 1.4 million work-days lost to illness. Flue gas emission limits were improved in 2020, but data from mandatory reporting of emission levels is not made public. Turkey has not ratified the Gothenburg Protocol, which limits fine dust polluting other countries.

Turkey's coal is almost all low calorie lignite, but government policy supports its continued use. In contrast Germany is closing lignite-fired stations under 150 MW.[4] Drought in Turkey is frequent, but thermal power stations use significant amounts of water.[5]

Coal-fired power stations are the largest source of greenhouse gas. Coal-fired stations emit over 1 kg of carbon dioxide for every kilowatt hour generated,[6] over twice that of gas power. Academics suggest that, in order to reach Turkey's target of carbon neutrality by 2053, coal power should be phased out by the mid-2030s.[7]

Energy policy
See also: Energy in Turkey § Policy and regulation

Energy strategy includes increasing the share of not just renewable energy in Turkey, but also other local energy resources to support the country's development and to reduce dependence on energy imports.[8] As of 2022 Turkey has not ratified the Gothenburg Protocol on emissions ceilings for sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.[9] Earlier in 2021 Turkey ratified the Paris Agreement to limit climate change, but as of October 2021 policy was still to increase domestic coal share in the energy mix, and planned increases in coal power were forecast to increase CO2 emissions.[10]: 79, 87 

Generation
Control room of ZETES-3, one of many coal-fired power stations built in the 2010s
Coal (in black) has remained about a third of electricity generation
See also: List of active coal-fired power stations in Turkey and Electricity sector in Turkey

Coal-fired power stations generate approximately one third of the nation's electricity:[11] in 2020 made up of 62 TWh from imported coal and 44 TWh from local coal (almost all lignite).[12][note 1] As of 2022 there are 55 licensed active coal-fired power stations with a total capacity of 20 gigawatts (GW).[note 2] In 2021 there was 0.4 GW of unlicensed thermal power,[16]: 26  but how much of this is coal is unclear. The average thermal efficiency of Turkey's coal-fired power stations is 36%.[17] Generation fell in 2021 due to the high cost of imported coal (over 70 $/MWh).[18] Emba Hunutlu power station is due to startup in 2022, but no other coal-fired power stations are likely to be constructed.[19] Typical thermal efficiencies are 39%, 42% and 44% for subcritical, supercritical and ultra supercritical power stations.[20]

Much of the operational fleet was built in the 21st century. There was oversupply of generating capacity and a drop in demand in 2020, and a quarter of power stations were estimated to be cashflow negative.[21] According to Bloomberg New Energy Finance the capital cost of building 10 GW of coal-power would fund construction of 25 GW of solar power.[22] Also solar generation fits better with consumption, as annual peak electricity demand is on summer afternoons, due to air conditioning.[23]

Germany is closing lignite-fired stations under 150 MW.[24] Neighbouring Greece is closing down all its lignite-fueled power stations.[25] The 1320 MW Emba Hunutlu coal fired power station was under construction in 2021.[26] Shanghai Electric Power said it would be China's largest ever direct investment in Turkey.[27] However, according to the World Wide Fund for Nature, it could not make a profit if it was not subsidized.[28] Afşin-Elbistan C and further new coal-fired power stations will probably not be constructed,[29][30] due to public opposition,[31] court cases,[32] and the risk of them becoming stranded assets.[33]

Yunus Emre power station was completed in 2020,[12]: 42  but had not generated any power to the grid by the end of 2021.[34][35] With a few exceptions stations smaller than 200 MW provide both electricity and heat, often to factories, whereas almost all those larger than 200 MW just generate electricity. Companies owning large amounts of coal power include Eren, Çelikler, Aydem, İÇDAŞ, Anadolu Birlik (via Konya Sugar) and Diler.[16]: 31 

Flexibility

Turkey plans to substantially increase the contribution of solar and wind power to its mix of generation. Cost-effective system operation with a high proportion of these intermittent generation sources requires system flexibility, where other sources of generation can be ramped up or down promptly in response to changes in intermittent generation. However, conventional coal-fired generation may not have the flexibility required to accommodate a large proportion of solar and wind power. Retrofitting to increase the ramp-up rate to reach full load in 1 hour, and lower minimum generation to half max may be possible for about 9 GW (just under half) of installed capacity.[36]

Coal industry
Main article: Coal in Turkey

Government policy supports continued generation from lignite (brown coal) because it is mined locally,[37] whereas almost all hardcoal (anthracite and bituminous coal) is imported.[38] In 2020, 51 million tonnes (83%) of lignite and 22 million tonnes (55%) of hardcoal was burnt in power stations.[39]

Locally mined lignite
Lignite is burnt nearby, as here with the opencast mine feeding Afşin-Elbistan A power station to the right

Power stations burning lignite tend to be near local coalmines, such as Elbistan, because Turkish lignite's calorific value is less than 12.5 MJ/kg (and Afsin Elbistan lignite less than 5 MJ/kg, which is a quarter of typical thermal coal),[40] and about 90% has lower heat value under 3,000 kcal/kg,[41] so is not worth transporting. According to energy analyst Haluk Direskeneli because of the low quality of Turkish lignite large amounts of supplementary fuel oil is used in lignite fired power stations.[42]

Imported coal

To minimize transport costs, power stations burning imported coal are usually located on the coast; with clusters in Çanakkale and Zonguldak provinces and around Iskenderun Bay.[43] Coal with up to 3% sulphur and minimum 5,400 kcal/kg can be imported, with capacity to burn about 25 million tons a year: in 2020 almost three quarters of imports were from Colombia.[26] According to thinktank Ember, as of 2021, building new wind and solar power is cheaper than running existing coal power stations which depend on imported coal.[44]

Air pollution
Health effects of coal-fired power stations in Turkey 2019[34]
See also: Air pollution in Turkey § Flue gas emission limits

Air pollution is a significant environmental and public health problem in Turkey, and has been for decades. A 1996 court order to shut 3 polluting power stations was not enforced.[45] Levels of air pollution have been recorded above the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines in 51 out of 81 provinces.[46] As for long range air pollution, Turkey has not ratified the Gothenburg Protocol which covers PM 2.5 (fine particles),[47] and reporting under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution has been criticized as incomplete.[48]: 10 

Early deaths in 2019 due to air pollution caused by coal power have been estimated somewhere between 2,000[49] and 5,000; with 1.4 million working days lost due to illness.[50] According to Shura Energy Transition Center if external costs, such as air pollution and CO2 emissions, had been taken into account, the cost of power generation in 2018 would have been 26% higher for hard coal and 58% higher for lignite.[51]: 10  A Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL) report estimates that the health costs of illness caused by coal-fired power stations were the equivalent of between 13 and 27 percent of Turkey's total annual health expenditure that year (including both public and private sectors).[34]

New flue gas emission limits were introduced in January 2020,[52][53] resulting in five 20th century power stations being shut down that month because they did not meet the new limits.[54] They were all re-licensed after improvements in 2020, such as new flue gas filters,[55][56] but the effectiveness of the improvements is being questioned,[57][58] as expenditure may not have been sufficient.[30] There is not enough data regarding modern filters, due to many government ambient air monitoring points both being defective[59] and not measuring fine particulate matter.[46] Fine particulates (PM2.5), are the most dangerous pollutant but have no legal ambient limit.[60]

The "Industry Related Air Pollution Control Regulation" says that flue-gas stacks must be at least 10m from the ground and 3m above the roof.[61] Larger power stations must measure local pollutants vented into the atmosphere from the smokestack and report them to the Environment Ministry but, unlike the EU, they are not required to publish the data.[56] 67 smokestacks were sending data to the Environment Ministry in 2021.[62]

Greenhouse gas emissions
Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey

Coal-fired power stations emit over 1 kg of carbon dioxide for every kilowatt hour generated,[63] over twice that of gas-fired power stations. Turkey's coal-fired power stations are the largest contributor to the country's greenhouse gas emissions.[note 3] Production of public heat and electricity emitted 138 megatonnes of CO2 equivalent (CO2e) in 2019,[lower-alpha 1] mainly through coal burning.

Turkey has approved the environmental impact assessment to build Afşin-Elbistan C,[66] and according to the assessment over 5 kg of CO2 would be emitted per kWh generated.[note 4] This would be less carbon efficient than any power station on the list of least carbon efficient power stations. The forecast emissions of 60 million tonnes a year from this station would be more than 10% of the nation's total greenhouse gas emissions, and would make the power station the largest point source in the world, overtaking the current Secunda CTL.[68]

Because lignite quality varies greatly, to estimate the carbon dioxide emissions from a particular power station, the net calorific value of the lignite it burnt must be reported to the government. But this is not published,[69] unlike some other countries.[70] However public information from space-based measurements of carbon dioxide by Climate TRACE is expected to reveal individual large power stations in 2022,[71] and smaller ones by GOSAT-GW in 2023[72] and possibly in 2025 by Sentinel-7.[73][74][75]

A 2020 study estimated that fitting carbon capture and storage to a power station burning Turkish lignite would increase the cost of its electricity by over 50%.[76] In 2021 Turkey targeted net zero carbon emissions by 2053.[77] After the Paris Agreement on limiting climate change was ratified in 2021 many environmental groups called for the government to set a target year for coal phase-out.[78]

Ash

The mineral residue that remains from burning coal is known as coal ash, and contains toxic substances that may pose a health risk to workers in coal-fired power stations and people living or working near Turkey's large[30] coal ash dams. A 2021 report from İklim Değişikliği Politika ve Araştırma Derneği (Climate Change Policy and Research Association) said that 2020s environmental law was being evaded by the repeated granting of less stringent 1 year temporary operating licenses, and said that coal ash storage permit criteria (inspections by universities) were unclear, so some power stations were not properly storing unhealthy coal ash . They said that some inspections may be insufficient and summarized inspection reports as:

2020–2021 Ash environmental protection systems of some coal-fired power stations - missing information [79]: 75  Key: ✓=information provided in report : blank=no information provided and feature may or may not exist
Power station name Dry Storage Wet Storage Surrounding channels Wall Pump system Groundwater Pollution Analysis/Monitoring Observation Well Wire Fence Drainage System Slope Other
Afşin Elbistan B ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Dust Control Plan should be prepared.
Yatağan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Impermeable zone problem
18 Mart Çan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kemerköy ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ The landfill is in the forest area
Yeniköy ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ The landfill is in the forest area
Kangal ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Soma ✓ The safety of embankments, sitting, sliding, etc. monitoring/progress report for monitoring and reporting
Tunçbilek ✓ ✓ Complying with the provisions of the Regulation on Buildings to be Constructed in Earthquake Zones and the Regulation on Buildings to be Constructed in Disaster Zones
Orhaneli ✓ ✓
Seyitömer ✓ ✓
Çayırhan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
ÇATES ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Impermeable zone construction
Afşin Elbistan A Re-evaluation of the commitments given in the EIA Report for the construction of the Landfill Facility within the scope of the Circular

Taxes, subsidies and incentives

Around the year 2000 government incentives were offered to build cogeneration power stations (such as autoproducers in factories but not connected to the grid),[80] much small cogeneration was built in industrial parks[81][82] or in sugar factories.[83][84] About 20 of these small autoproducers were operating by 2021 but there is no list publicly available as they are not connected to the grid and no longer require licences.[12][note 5] Because of its low calorific value lignite-fired electricity costs more to generate than in other European countries (except for Greece).[85]

In 2019 large lignite-burning stations were subsidized with capacity payments totalling over 1 billion lira (US$180 million, which was over half of total capacity payments),[86] and in 2020 over 1.2 billion lira (US$210 million).[87] In 2021 four power stations burning a mixture of lignite and imported coal also received capacity payments.[88] This capacity mechanism has been criticised by some economists, as they say it encourages strategic capacity withholding, with a study of 2019 data showing that a 1% increase in the electricity price correlated with a 1-minute increase in length of power station generation failures.[86] There is also a market clearing price cap of 2,000 lira(about US$350 in 2021)/MWh.[86] These economists say that auctions of firm capacity (this is done in some other countries[89]), with a financial penalty if not delivered, would be a better mechanism.[86]

Some electricity from these stations is purchased by the state-owned electricity company at a guaranteed price of US$50–55/MWh until the end of 2027.[90]: 109  In the last quarter of 2021 the guaranteed purchase price was 458 lira(US$81) per MWh.[91] Imported coal is taxed at US$70 per tonne minus the price of coal on the international market.[92] The EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism could push coal-power after gas in the merit order: in other words it could become more expensive.[93]

Phase-out

The Paris Agreement pledge on Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions must be updated in 2022 to meet the agreement,[94] and when it is the future of the coal power fleet will need to be considered.[95] In 2021 the World Bank said that a plan for a just transition away from coal is needed.[96] A public meeting is scheduled to be held in January 2022 to discuss the environmental impact report for Emba Hunutlu, with the owners now proposing adding 43 MW of wind and 37 MW of solar,[97][98] to the 1320 MW of coal power which had been due to open in 2021.[99] The company say that they devote themselves to building a power station with "no pollution".[100] According to a 2021 study by several NGOs if coal power subsidies were completely abolished and a carbon price introduced at around US$40 (which is lower than the 2021 EU Allowance) then no coal power stations would be profitable and all would close down before 2030.[91] According to Carbon Tracker in 2021 $1 b of investment on the Istanbul Stock Exchange was at risk of stranding, including $300 m for EÜAŞ.[101]: 12  Turkey has $3.2 billion in loans for its energy transition.[102]

Notes
  1. In 2018 coal-fired power stations gross generation was 113 terawatt hours (TWh), which was 37% of total gross generation.[13] The figures in List of active coal-fired power stations in Turkey are net generation.
  2. See tr:Türkiye'deki kömür yakıtlı enerji santralleri listesi or its underlying Wikidata for details. TKI 2020 report says 48 total.[12]: 44  The report says 37 power stations using domestic coal are in operation. 20 of them installed capacity over 50 MW, others are small-capacity autoproducers and cogeneration power stations. Except for 1 hard coal and 1 asphaltite power station, all domestic coal power stations are lignite-fired power stations.[12]: 41  The Energy Ministry gives a total of 68 coal-fired power stations,[14] as at end September 2019, which includes unlicensed stations. In December 2021 TEİAŞ said there is 1 asphaltite, 15 imported coal, 47 lignite and 4 hardcoal, which totals 67 (as Yunus Emre is not active presumably they don't count it, news reports say Ilgın sugar factory not operating).[15] The names and details of the others are not known by Wikidata.
  3. UNFCCC category 1.A.1. Energy industries a. Public electricity and heat production:solid fuels. shows 116 megatonnes of CO2, which is larger than any other category.[64]
  4. By routine calculation 61,636,279.98 tCO2/year[67] divided by 11380 GWh/year[66] equals 61,636.27998 Gg CO2 divided by 11,380 GWh equals 5.4 kg CO2/kWh
  5. Some former autoproducer licencees are listed in table 20 of the following cite from 2007, but it is not publicly known exactly which are still operating.[84]
  1. [65]: table 1s1 cell B10 

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