Ali as Caliph

Ali is credited as the first male to convert to Islam.

In 656, as the public dissatisfaction with despotism and corruption came to a boiling point, Caliph Uthman was assassinated by the rebels in a raid on his residence in Medina after a long siege.[1] Prior to this escalation, Ali had acted as the mediator between the rebels and Uthman.[2] According to Jafri, though he condemned Uthman's murder, Ali regarded the resistance movement as a front for the just demands of the poor and disenfranchised.[3] Notably, Ali's son, Hasan, was injured by the enraged mobs while standing guard at Uthman's residence at the request of Ali.[4]

After the assassination of Uthman, the potential candidates for the caliphate were Ali and Talha, another senior companion of Muhammad. Uthman's tribesmen, the Umayyads, had fled Medina, and the rebels, prominent Muhajirun, and Ansar had gained control of the city. Talha enjoyed some support among the Egyptian rebels. Ali, however, was preferred by the rebels from Basra and Kufa, who had earlier heeded Ali's opposition to the use of violence, and most of the Ansar, and finally these groups got the upper hand.[5]

The caliphate was offered to Ali, who declined the position at first.[6] Aslan attributes Ali's initial refusal to the polarizing impact of Uthman's murder on the community, while Durant writes that, "[Ali] shrank from drama in which religion had been displaced by politics, and devotion by intrigue."[7] According to Shaban, the tumultuous atmosphere after Uthman's murder eventually compelled Ali into accepting the caliphate to prevent further chaos.[8] He received the first pledges of allegiance in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina.[9] It appears that Ali personally did not force anyone for a pledge though the strong pro-Ali atmosphere of Medina might have exerted some pressure on his opponents. In particular, Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abdullah ibn Umar and Usama ibn Zayd refused to acknowledge the authority of Ali.[10] Talha and Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad with ambitions for the high office, likely gave their pledges though they later broke their oaths, claiming that they had pledged their allegiance to Ali under public pressure.[11] There is, however, less evidence for violence here than in Abu Bakr's election, according to Madelung.[12]

There is ample evidence that Ali saw the general pledge of allegiance as a pivotal component in the legitimacy of his caliphate and distinguished between his election and that of the first caliph, Abu Bakr.[13] In the words of Ali and the second caliph, Umar, the caliphate of Abu Bakr was decided hastily by a small shura (council), whereas Ali emphasized the general public's endorsement of his caliphate.[14]

Madelung maintains that, after Muhammad's death, Ali unequivocally viewed himself as the most qualified person to lead the Muslim community by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad.[15] Mavani adds that Ali, in fact, considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad through a divine decree at the Event of the Ghadir Khumm.[16] However, Mavani also speculates that, had Muslims withheld their support, Ali would have not sought the title of Caliph by force.[17] In line with Ali's claims, the succession of the previous prophets in the Quran is a matter that is settled by divine selection rather than election, according to Madelung. In particular, God selects the successors of the past prophets from their own family, whether or not those successors become prophets themselves.[18]

Domains of Rashidun empire under four caliphs. The divided phase relates to Ali caliphate.

  Strongholds of Rashidun Caliphate

  Vassal states of Rashidun Caliphate

  Region under the control of Muawiyah I during civil war 656–661

  Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As during civil war 658–661

Ali was a close relative of Muhammad with a widely reported knowledge of Islam's roots. During his caliphate, he evidently laid claim to a divine religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunnah, in order to meet the needs of a rapidly-changing caliphate.[19] This distinguished Ali from his predecessors who saw themselves merely as the administrators of the divine law.[20]

According to Madelung, the caliphate of Ali was characterized by his honesty, his unbending devotion to Islam, his equal treatment of all of his supporters, and his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.[21] Veccia Vaglieri notes that Ali fought against those whom he perceived as erring Muslims as a matter of duty, in order to uphold Islam. In victory, Ali would prevent the enslavement of women and children, against the common practice of the day. He showed his grief, wept for the dead, and even prayed over his enemies.[22] Ali barred his troops from commencing hostilities in the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Nahrawan.[23] Prior to the Battle of Siffin, when his forces gained the upper hand, Ali refused to retaliate after Syrians cut off their access to drinking water.[24]

Jones holds that the reign of Ali is remembered as a model for socio-political and religious righteousness that defied worldly corruption and social injustice.[25] Early in his caliphate, Ali moved to dismiss most of Uthman's governors, whom he considered corrupt, and reversed Uthman's entitlements for the ruling elite.[26] These actions, which earned Ali powerful enemies, have been criticized as politically naive. On the other hand, Tabatabai suggests that these actions reinforce that the rule of Ali was based more on righteousness than political opportunism, following the precedent of Muhammad's defiance of the powerful Quraysh in early Islam.[27] Ali's instructions to the governor of Egypt have been viewed as a model of just Islamic governance, "where justice and mercy is shown to human beings irrespective of class, creed and color, where poverty is neither a stigma or disqualification and where justice is not tarred with nepotism, favoritism, provincialism or religious fanaticism."[28]

Ali also opposed a centralized control over provincial revenues, favoring an equal distribution of the taxes and booty amongst Muslims, following the precedent of Muhammad.[29] This practice, according to Poonawala, might be an indication of Ali's policy to give equal value to all Muslims who served Islam, a policy which later garnered him considerable support among the traditional tribal leaders.[30] According to Shaban, Ali's policies earned him the strong support of the underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, who were subordinated after Muhammad by the Quraysh leadership, and the Qurra or Quranic reciters who sought pious Islamic leadership.[31] One account holds that Ali rejected the request by his brother, Aqil, for public funds.[32]

According to Heck, Ali also forbade Muslim fighters from looting and instead distributed the taxes as salaries among the warriors, in equal proportions. This might have been the first subject of the dispute between Ali and the rebel group that later constituted the Kharijites.[33] Since the majority of Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. In particular, Ali instructed his top general, Malik al-Ashtar, to pay more attention to land development than short-term taxation.[34]

The first Muslim civil war, known also as the First Fitna, took place after the assassination of Uthman and continued throughout the reign of Ali, in which he fought the rebel forces in three major battles.[35]

Zulfiqar with and without the shield. The Fatimid depiction of Ali's sword as carved on the Gates of Old Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr.

In 661, on the nineteenth of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa, he was struck over the head with a poison-coated sword by the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam. Ali died two days later from his wound. The sources seem to be unanimous that Ali forbade his family from excessive punishments for Ibn Muljam and from shedding the blood of others. In the meantime, Ibn Muljam was to be given good meals and a good bed. After Ali's death, his eldest son, Hasan, observed the lex talionis and Ibn Muljam was executed. Ali's grave was kept secret out of the fear that it might be desecrated by his enemies. His burial site was identified decades later, around which the town of Najaf grew as a major site of pilgrimage for Muslims, especially Shias.[67]

• Ali ibn Abi Talib (1984). Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. Alhoda UK. ISBN 0-940368-43-9.
• Cleary, Thomas (1996). Living and Dying with Grace: Counsels of Hadrat Ali. Shambhala Publications, Incorporated. 1570622116.
• Gordagh, George (1956). Ali, The Voice of Human Justice. ISBN 0-941724-24-7.(in Arabic)
• Ibn Qutaybah. Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa.(In Arabic)
• Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (1997). The Book of the Major Classes (scattered volumes of English translation as issued by Kitab Bhavan). Ta-Ha Publishers, London.
• Kattani, Sulayman (1983). Imam 'Ali: Source of Light, Wisdom and Might , translation by I.K.A. Howard. Muhammadi Trust of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 0950698660.
• Lakhani, M. Ali.; Reza Shah-Kazemi; Leonard Lewisohn (2007). The Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. World Wisdom, Inc. 1933316268.
• Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession. University of California. ISBN 969-8016-22-8.