1270s
The 1270s is the decade starting January 1, 1270, and ending December 31, 1279.
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Events
1270
Africa
The Eighth Crusade
- Before August – King Louis IX of France launches the Eighth Crusade, in an attempt to recapture the Crusader States from the Mamluk sultan Baibars; the opening engagement is a siege of Tunis.[1]
- August 25 – King Louis IX of France dies while besieging the city of Tunis, possibly due to poor quality drinking water.[2]
- October 30 – The siege of Tunis and the Eighth Crusade end, through an agreement between Charles I of Sicily (Louis IX's brother) and Muhammad I al-Mustansir, Khalif of Tunis.[3]
Other events
- August 10 (10 Nehasé 1262) – Yekuno Amlak overthrows the Ethiopian Zagwe Dynasty, claims the imperial throne and establishes the Solomonic Dynasty, which will last until 1974.[4]
Asia
- In Korea, the Sambyeolcho Rebellion begins against the Goryeo Dynasty, a puppet government of the Mongol Empire.[5]
- The ancient city of Ashkelon is captured from the Crusader States, and utterly destroyed by the Mamluk sultan Baibars, who goes so far as to fill in its important harbor, leaving the site desolate, and the city never to be rebuilt.[6]
- The city of Tabriz, in present-day Iran, is made capital of the Mongol Ilkhanate Empire (approximate date).[7]
- The independent state of Kutch is founded, in present-day India.[8]
- A census of the Chinese city of Hangzhou establishes that some 186,330 families reside within it, not including visitors and soldiers (Historian Jacques Gernet argues that this means a population of over 1 million inhabitants, making Hangzhou the most populous city in the world).[9]
- December 15 – The Nizari Ismaili garrison of Gerdkuh, Persia surrender after 17 years to the Mongols.[10]
Europe
- February 16 – Livonian Crusade - Battle of Karuse: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeats the Livonian Order decisively, on the frozen surface of the Baltic Sea.[11]
- September 1 – King Stephen V of Hungary writes his walk to the antiquum castellum near Miholjanec, where the Sword of Attila has been recently discovered.
- December – Crucial aspects of the philosophy of Averroism (itself based on Aristotle's works) are banned by the Roman Catholic Church, in a condemnation enacted by papal authority at the University of Paris.[12]
- The Summa Theologica, a work by Thomas Aquinas that is considered within the Roman Catholic Church to be the paramount expression of its theology, is completed (year uncertain).[13]
- Witelo translates Alhazen's 200-year-old treatise on optics, Kitab al-Manazir, from Arabic into Latin, bringing the work to European academic circles for the first time.[14]
- The Sanskrit fables known as the Panchatantra, dating from as early as 200 BCE, are translated into Latin, from a Hebrew version by John of Capua.[15]
- Construction of the Old New Synagogue in Prague is completed.[16]
- The cathedral on the Rock of Cashel in Ireland is completed.[17]
- Edmund, Earl of Cornwall, donates to the Cistercian Hailes Abbey in England (his father's foundation) a phial held to contain the Blood of Christ, acquired in the Holy Roman Empire; this becomes such a magnet for pilgrimage that within 7 years the monks are able to rebuild their abbey on a magnificent scale.[18]
- The Chronicle of Melrose is ended.[19]
1271
By place
Europe
- July 2 – Peace of Pressburg: Kings Ottokar II and Stephen V sign a peace agreement at Pressburg, settling territorial claims, following the failed invasion of Hungary by Ottokar in April. In the agreement, Stephen promises not to support Ottokar's opponents in Carinthia, and Ottokar renounces the castles he and his partisans occupy in Hungary.[20]
- The 17-year-old Marco Polo departs from Venice, with his father and uncle Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, to sets off for Asia to meet the Mongolian emperor Kublai Khan (the grandson of Genghis Khan) at his court in Beijing in China. They sail across the Mediterranean Sea and travel overland, crossing Armenia, Persia, and the Pamir Mountains.[21]
- August 21 – The counties of Poitou and Toulouse are absorbed into the French domains following the death of Alphonse of Poitiers, son of the late King Louis VIII (the Lion).[22]
- Construction of the Tower of Kamyenyets (or the White Tower) in Belarus begins. Later, it becomes a frontier stronghold on the northern border of Volhynia.
Levant
- February – Mamluk forces led by Sultan Baibars continue their territorial expansion in western Syria and appear before Safita Castle (called the White Castle) built by the Knights Templar. After a heroic defense, the small garrison is advised by Grand Master Thomas Bérard to surrender. The survivors are allowed to withdraw to Tortosa.[23]
- April 8 – Siege of Krak des Chevaliers: Mamluk forces under Baibars capture the strategically important castle Krak des Chevaliers from the Knights Hospitaller. During the siege the defenders receive a letter, supposedly from Grand Master Hugues de Revel, to surrender the castle. Under safe-conduct the Hospitallers retreat to Tripoli.[24]
- May–June – Baibars conducts an unsuccessful siege of Tripoli, and also fails in an attempted naval invasion of Cyprus. He sends an Egyptian fleet (some 20 ships) to Limassol, while King Hugh III (the Great) has left for Acre. Due to bad weather and seamanship, 11 ships ran aground and the crews fall into the hands of the Cypriots.[25]
- May 9 – Prince Edward (the Lord Edward) and King Charles I of Anjou arrive in Acre, with a fleet of 30 galleys, starting the Ninth Crusade against Baibars. During the Crusade they are unable to capture any territory and peace is quickly negotiated with the Mamluk Sultanate. Baibars consolidates his occupation in Syria.[26]
- October – Abaqa Khan, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate, detaches some 10,000 horsemen from Anatolia to support Edward I (the Lord Edward) in his war against Baibars. They invade Syria and defeat Mamluk forces who protect the region around Aleppo. The Mongols plunder the cities of Maarat al-Numan and Apamea.[27]
Asia
- September 12 – Nichiren, Japanese Buddhist priest, is arrested by a band of soldiers and nearly beheaded. This incident, known as Hosshaku Kenpon or "casting off the transient and revealing the true," is regarded as a turning point of Nichiren's teachings within the various schools, known as Nichiren Buddhism.[28]
- December 18 – Kublai Khan renames his empire "Great Yuan" (大元; dà yuán), officially marking the start of the Yuan Dynasty in China.
- The Nakhi Kingdom, of the northern Himalayan foothills, is annexed by the Yuan Dynasty (approximate date).
By topic
Religion
- September 1 – Pope Gregory X succeeds late Clement IV as the 184th pope of the Catholic Church, as the compromise candidate between French and Italian cardinals, ending a three-year conclave, the longest ever.
1272
- February – Charles I of Anjou, King of Naples, occupies Durazzo, Albania, and establishes the Albanian Kingdom.
- May 12 – The Mamluk sultan Baibars and the Kingdom of Jerusalem conclude a ten-year truce at Caesarea.[29]
- November 16 – Edward I becomes King of England on the death of his father Henry III.
- Baibars invades the weakening kingdom of Makuria, to the south of Egypt.
- Floris V, Count of Holland, makes an unsuccessful attack on Frisia in an attempt to recover the body of his father, Count William II.
- King Afonso III of Portugal eliminates the last Moorish community in Portugal at Faro.
- Worshipful Company of Cordwainers and Curriers granted rights to regulate the leather trade in the City of London (England); Fishmongers Company chartered.
- In astronomy, the recording of the Alfonsine tables is completed.[30]
1273
By place
Europe
- January 22 – Muhammad II becomes Sultan of the Emirate of Granada after the death of his father, Muhammad I, in a riding accident.
- September 29 – Rudolph I of Germany is elected King of Germany over rival candidate King Otakar II of Bohemia, ending the Interregnum; Otakar refuses to acknowledge Rudolph as the new king, leading to the outbreak of war in 1276. Rudolph is the first of many Habsburgs to hold the throne.
- October 6 – Thomas Aquinas writes Summa Theologica, a master work of Catholic theology, leaving it unfinished after having a mystical experience during Mass.
- The Constantinople suburb of Galata is given to the Republic of Genoa, by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, in return for Genoa's support of the Empire after the Fourth Crusade, and the sacking of Constantinople.
- King Otakar II of Bohemia captures Bratislava from Hungary.
- The Congregatio Regni Tocius Sclavonie Generalis, with its decisions (statuta et constitutiones), is the oldest surviving document written by the Croatian parliament.
- Alfonso X of Castile creates and grants privileges to the Mesta to promote the woollen industry.
Middle East
- July – The Sultan Baybars captures the last remaining stronghold of the Hashashin sect, al-Kahf Castle.[31]
- December – Followers of the recently deceased Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi establish the Sufi order of the Whirling Dervishes in the city of Konya (in modern-day Turkey).
- The Holy Redeemer khachkar, believed to be one of the finest examples of the art form, is carved in Haghpat, Armenia, by Vahram.
Asia
- January 31 – The six-year-long battle of Xiangyang ends as the commander of the Song Dynasty's forces surrender to Kublai Khan's Yuan Dynasty. The battle is the first in which firearms are used in combat.
- In Korea, the Sambyeolcho Rebellion against the Goryeo dynasty (a puppet government of the Yuan dynasty) ends as rebel forces are defeated by combined Yuan and Goryeo forces.
1274
By area
Africa
- The Marinid amir, Abu Yusuf Yaqub, enters peacefully into Ceuta, putting an end to some 40 years of the city's independence.[32]
Asia
= Japan =
- October 5 – November 20: Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty attempts the first of two Mongol invasions of Japan (30,000 soldiers and support personnel sail from Korea); after the Mongols capture the islands of Tsushima and Iki, they are repulsed on the main island of Kyushu at the Battle of Bun'ei by amassed Japanese warriors and a strong storm which batters their forces and fleet. Credit for the storm – called a kamikaze, or divine wind – is given by the Japanese to the god Raijin.
- Nichiren, founder of Nichiren Buddhism, enters exile on Mount Minobu.
Europe
- May 7 – The Second Council of Lyons, held by the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church convenes to consider the liberation of the Holy Land via Crusades, and address the East-West Schism with the Byzantine church. The Council eventually approves a tithe to support efforts to liberate the Holy Land from Muslims, and reaches apparent resolution of the schism, which ultimately proves unsuccessful. All but four mendicant orders of friars are suppressed. Catholic teaching on Purgatory is defined for the first time.[33]
- November – The Diet of Nuremberg orders that all crown estates seized since the death of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor be restored to Rudolph I of Germany; almost all European rulers agree, with the notable exception of King Otakar II of Bohemia, who has benefited greatly by conquering or otherwise coming into possession of many of those lands.
- Pope Gregory X decrees that conclaves (meetings during which the electors have no contact with the outside) should be used for papal elections, reforming the electoral process which had taken over 3 years to elect him.
- Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla writes Ginnat Egoz (Garden of Nuts).
= England =
- August 2
- King Edward I of England finally returns from the Ninth Crusade to England, to be crowned king, two years after his father King Henry III's death.
- His interim chancellor and effective regent, Walter de Merton retires from royal service, to make the final revisions to his statutes for the foundation of Merton College, Oxford, and take up the post of Bishop of Rochester.
- One of Edward's first acts is to enforce a decree, requiring all English Jews to wear yellow badges.
- The first main survey of the Hundred Rolls, an English census seen as a follow up to the Domesday Book (completed in 1086), is begun; it lasts until 1275.
= Italy =
- May 1 – In Florence, nine-year-old Dante Alighieri first sees eight-year-old Beatrice, his lifelong muse.[34]
- Bonvesin da la Riva writes the didactic-allegoric poemet Liber di Tre Scricciur (Negra, Rubra, Aurea), the first text in the ancient Western Lombard language (still similar to other Gallo-Italian languages), and one of the first great literary works in Italy. It tells about Hell, Christ's Passion and Paradise; this plot prefigures Dante in his Comedia.
1275
By place
Asia
- March – The 200,000 multiethnic troops of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, headed by the Turkish commander Bayan, face a Chinese Song Dynasty army of 130,000, led by the Song Chancellor Jia Sidao. The result is a decisive victory for the Yuan Dynasty, and soon after the much-vilified Jia Sidao is stripped of rank and title, and killed by one of his own guards, as he is sent to exile in Fujian by the Song court.
- March 4 – Chinese astronomers observe a total eclipse of the Sun in China.
- The invading forces of the Yuan Dynasty capture the Song Dynasty city of Suzhou.
- Marco Polo purportedly visits Xanadu, Kublai Khan's summer capital of the Yuan Dynasty.
- The city of Kunming is made capital of the Yunnan province of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.
- Nestorian monk Rabban Bar Sauma begins his pilgrimage from China towards Jerusalem.
- The Japanese era Bun'ei ends, and the Kenji era begins.
- Alamut Castle is temporarily recaptured from the Mongols by a Nizari force under a son of Rukn al-Din Khurshah and a descendant of the Khwarezmshahs.[36][37]
Europe
- April 22 – The first Statute of Westminster is passed by the English Parliament, establishing a series of laws in its 51 clauses, including equal treatment of rich and poor, free and fair elections, and definition of bailable and non-bailable offenses.
- June 14 – Battle of Hova: Valdemar, King of Sweden is defeated by his brother Magnus, after which Magnus deposes him.
- July 22 – Magnus is elected the new king of Sweden.
- September 11 – 1275 British earthquake. The earthquake struck the south of Great Britain. The epicentre is unknown, although it may have been in the Portsmouth/Chichester area on the south coast of England[38] or in Glamorgan, Wales.[39]
- October 8 – Battle of Ronaldsway: Scottish forces defeat the Manx of the Isle of Man in a decisive battle, firmly establishing Scottish rule of the island.
- October 27 – Floris V, Count of Holland, grants the city of Amsterdam freedom from taxes.
- Eleanor de Montfort is captured by sailors in the employ of Edward I of England, to prevent her marriage to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, prince of Wales; she is used as a bargaining chip over the coming years, in Edward's attempts to subjugate Llywelyn and Wales.
- The Mongol Golden Horde raids Lithuania for the third time.
- Around Ciney, in present day Wallonia, the War of the Cow begins; (ending in 1278).
- The first main survey of the Hundred Rolls, an English census seen as a follow-up to the Domesday Book completed in 1086, is finished; it began in 1274.
By topic
Arts
- Jean de Meun completes the French allegorical work of fiction, Roman de la Rose, with a second section (the first section was written by Guillaume de Lorris in 1230).
Markets
- In Ghent, the first instance is recorded of emission of life annuities by a town in the Low Countries; this event confirms a trend of consolidation of local public debt in north-western Europe, initiated in 1218 by Reims.[40]
Technology
- The verge escapement, a simple type of escapement used in clocks, is invented (exact year unknown).
Religion
- Ramon Llull establishes a school in Majorca to teach Arabic to preachers, in an attempt to aid proselytizing to Moors. He also discovers diethyl ether.
- The era of the tosafot (medieval commentators on the Talmud) ends (it began in 1100).
1276
By area
Africa
Americas
- A severe 23-year drought begins to affect the Grand Canyon area, eventually forcing the agriculture-dependent Anasazi culture to migrate out of the region.
Asia
- February – The court of the Southern Song Dynasty of China and hundreds of thousands of its citizens flee from Hangzhou to Fujian, and then Guangdong, in an effort to escape an invasion by Kublai Khan's Yuan Dynasty.
- June 14 – Remnants of the Song Chinese court in Fuzhou province conduct the coronation ceremony for the Prince Zhao Shi to become Emperor Duanzong of Song.
- Alamut Castle is again captured by the Mongols from a Nizari force, under a son of Rukn al-Din Khurshah and a descendant of the Khwarezmshahs.[41][37]
Europe
- March 9 – Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City. Ravensburg also does in the same year.
- June – King Rudolph I of Germany declares war on King Otakar II of Bohemia, a political rival; by November, Otakar II is forced to cede four important territories, as demanded by the Diet of Nuremberg in 1274.
- Stefan Dragutin of Serbia becomes King of Serbia.
- A Mudejar rebellion erupts in Valencia (it is put down in 1278).[42]
By topic
Culture
- Merton College, Oxford, is first recorded as having a collection of books, making its Library the world's oldest in continuous daily use.[43]
Economics
- Henry of Ghent becomes the last major theologian to openly consider annuities as usurious contract. The end of the debate allows for the expansion of the budding practice of renten emission, to become a staple of public finance in north-western Europe.[44]
Religion
- January 21 – Pope Innocent V succeeds Pope Gregory X, as the 185th pope.
- July 11 – Pope Adrian V (also referred to as Hadrian) succeeds Pope Innocent V, as the 186th pope.
- September 13 – Pope John XXI succeeds Pope Adrian V as the 187th pope, becoming the fourth man this calendar year to hold the office of pope.
- The foundation stone of the Minoritenkirche in Vienna is laid, by King Otakar II of Bohemia.
1277
- March 7 – Condemnation of 1270: 219 philosophical and theological doctrines such as Averroism are prohibited from discussion in the University of Paris, under a decree promulgated by Étienne Tempier, Bishop of Paris.
- March 18 – Charles of Anjou buys the title to the Kingdom of Jerusalem from Mary of Antioch, for 1,000 bezants and an annual payment of 4,000 livres tournois.[45]
- March 19 – The Byzantine–Venetian treaty of 1277 is concluded, stipulating a two-year truce and renewing Venetian commercial privileges in the Byzantine Empire.[46]
- April 15 – Battle of Elbistan: Mamluk sultan Baibars invades the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, and defeats a Mongol army.
- November 25 – Pope Nicholas III succeeds Pope John XXI, as the 188th pope.
- Battle of Ngasaunggyan: Burma's Pagan Empire begins to disintegrate, after being defeated by Kublai Khan at Yunnan, near the Chinese border.
- Some 50,000 leaders and citizens of the Southern Song Dynasty of China become the first recorded inhabitants of Macau, as they seek refuge from the invading armies of the Yuan Dynasty. They also stay for a short period in Kowloon. Some hundred years later, the place where they stayed becomes Sung Wong Toi.
- The Treaty of Aberconwy is signed by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales, and King Edward I of England, ending the First Welsh War, in exchange for restrictions on Llywelyn's power.
- St George's Cross is first recorded in use, as the national flag of England.[47]
- In Japan, a 20 kilometer stone wall defending the coast of Hakata Bay in Fukuoka is completed; it is built in response to the attempted invasion by the Yuan Dynasty in 1274.
1278
By area
America
Asia
- February – The Japanese era Kenji ends, and the Kōan era begins.
- May 8 – Emperor Duanzong of Song China dies of illness, and is succeeded by his brother Zhao Bing, who becomes Emperor Huaizong of Song. Meanwhile, armed forces under the control of Mongol leader Kublai Khan draw closer to the remnants of the Song imperial court. A year later, at the Battle of Yamen, the Song Dynasty will cease to exist, becoming incorporated into the Yuan Dynasty of China.
- November 8 – Trần Thánh Tông, the second emperor of Vietnam's Trần dynasty, takes up the post of Retired Emperor, but continues for eleven years to co-rule with his son Trần Khâm.
Europe
- January – Charles of Anjou is crowned King of Jerusalem, and is acknowledged by the kingdom's barons at Acre.[48]
- May 1 – William II of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea, dies. By the terms of the Treaty of Viterbo, his lands pass under the direct control of Charles of Anjou.[48]
- August 5 – King Alfonso X of Castile begins the Siege of Algeciras (at this time under the control of Morocco), the first of many the city will suffer during the Spanish Reconquista. He will be forced to abandon it about a year later.
- August 26 – Battle on the Marchfeld at Dürnkrut and Jedenspeigen: Kings Rudolf I of Germany and Ladislaus IV of Hungary defeat King Ottokar II of Bohemia, in a match of over 80,000 men and the largest battle of knights in the Middle Ages. The battle ends a power struggle between Rudolph and Otakar over the fate of central Europe, and Rudolf's House of Habsburg will continue to rule Austria and other captured territories, until the end of World War I in 1918.
- September 8 – The independence, boundaries, and political structure of Andorra are agreed to by the Catalan Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix.
- September 29 – Peter III of Aragon takes the Muslim stronghold of Montesa, putting an end to two years of Mudéjar rebellion. The defeated Muslims are expelled from the realm, and go into exile.[49]
- The so-called War of the Cow, which had begun in 1275 in what will become Wallonia, ends.
By topic
Arts and culture
- The earliest known written copy of the Avesta, a collection of ancient sacred Persian Zoroastrian texts previously passed down orally, is produced.
Markets
- Giles of Lessines writes his De usuris. He estimates that some credit contracts need not to be usurious, as "future things are not estimated to be of such value as those collected in the instant". The prevalence of this view in the usury debate allows for the development of the financial industry in Roman Catholic Europe.[50]
1279
By place
Africa
- Abu Ishaq, uncle of the Hafsid khalif, sides with the Almohad rebels of Béjaïa, and takes Tunis.[51]
Asia
- March 19 – Battle of Yamen: Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty defeats and ends the Song dynasty after three centuries, and he becomes the emperor of all China. The Mongol Empire reaches its largest extent, although it has already partially fragmented.
- April 17 – Thawun Gyi settles at Taungoo (in modern-day Real Myanmar), and becomes its first ruler.
- October 12 – The Dai-Gohonzon, the supreme object of veneration of Nichiren Shōshū Buddhism, is said to be inscribed by Nichiren.
- A Yuan diplomatic party, sent by Kublai Khan to Japan, is killed by Japan's regent Hōjō Tokimune, leading to a second invasion attempt by the Mongols in 1281.
- The Chola Dynasty of South India falls, under attacks by the Hoysala Empire and Pandyan Kingdom.
- Ram Khamhaeng's reign commences as the third king of Thailand's Sukhothai Era, a great "Golden Age" foreshadowing modern-day Thailand.
- Mamluk sultan Baraka Khan and emir Qalawun of Egypt invade Armenia; a revolt in Egypt while they are away forces Baraka to abdicate, and allows Qalawun to become sultan.
Europe
- March 5 – Battle of Aizkraukle: Lithuanian forces, led by Traidenis, defeat the Livonian Order of Teutonic Knights.
- July 20 – The Castilians are forced to abandon the first Siege of Algeciras (begun in 1278), after their fleet is destroyed by the Moroccans, led by Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr, and the Infante Pedro of Castile flees the field.
- The first of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed under King Edward I of England, which prevents land from passing into possession of the Church.
- The second of two main surveys of the Hundred Rolls, an English census seen as a follow up to the Domesday Book completed in 1086, is begun; it lasts until 1280.
- Al-Razi's important medical writings are translated into Latin by Faraj ben Salim, some 350 years after Al-Razi's death.
- The Royal Mint of England moves into the Tower of London.
- The town of Haapsalu, Estonia is founded.
Significant people
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