Monarchy of China

China was a monarchy from prehistoric times up to 1912 CE, when the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the Republic of China. The succession of mythological monarchs of China were non-hereditary. Dynastic rule began in circa 2070 BCE when Yu the Great established the Xia dynasty, and lasted until 1912 CE when dynastic rule collapsed together with the monarchical system.[1]

Monarchy of China
Longest-reigning
Aisin Gioro Xuanye
(Kangxi Emperor)
5 February 1661 – 20 December 1722
Details
StyleHis/Her Imperial Majesty[lower-alpha 1]
and various others
Last monarchAisin Gioro Puyi[lower-alpha 2]
Abolition12 February 1912[lower-alpha 3]
ResidenceForbidden City[lower-alpha 4]
and various others
AppointerNon-hereditary (until 2070 BCE)
Hereditary (since 2070 BCE)
Pretender(s)Jin Yuzhang (current)
History of China
ANCIENT
Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BC
Xia c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC
Shang c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC
Zhou c. 1046 – 256 BC
 Western Zhou
 Eastern Zhou
   Spring and Autumn
   Warring States
IMPERIAL
Qin 221–207 BC
Han 202 BC – 220 AD
  Western Han
  Xin
  Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
  Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin 266–420
  Western Jin
  Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms
Northern and Southern dynasties
420–589
Sui 581–618
Tang 618–907
Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms
907–979		 Liao
916–1125
Western Xia
1038–1227
Jin
1115–1234
Song 960–1279
  Northern Song
  Southern Song
Yuan 1271–1368
Ming 1368–1644
Qing 1636–1912
MODERN
Republic of China on the mainland 1912–1949
People's Republic of China 1949–present
Republic of China in Taiwan 1949–present
Related articles

The monarchy of China took the form of absolute monarchy during most of its existence, even though the actual power of the ruler varied depending on his/her ability to consolidate the rule and various other factors.[lower-alpha 5] During periods of political disunity, China was divided among competing dynasties that oftentimes claimed exclusive Chinese politico-cultural orthodoxy; in such cases, more than one Chinese monarchy existed simultaneously. Throughout Chinese history, there were monarchs of both ethnic Han and non-Han origins.[4]

Territorial domains
Approximate territories ruled by the Chinese monarchy throughout history

While the Chinese monarchy was originally established along the Yellow River and Yangtze River in China proper, various Chinese dynasties expanded to incorporate other regions into the Chinese realm.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17]

At various points in time, the Chinese monarchy exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong),[5][6][7] Taiwan,[8] Manchuria (both Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria),[9][10] Sakhalin,[11][12] Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia),[10][13] Vietnam,[14][18] Tibet,[9][10] Xinjiang,[15] as well as parts of Central Asia,[10][11] the Korean Peninsula,[16] Afghanistan,[17][19] and Siberia.[10]

The Chinese monarchy reached its largest territorial extent under either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[20][21][22][23][24] This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan dynasty: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic coast.[25][26][27] Contrastingly, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined. The total area under the control of the Qing dynasty amounted to more than 13 million km2 at its peak.[28][29][30]

Apart from exercising direct control over the Chinese realm, the Chinese monarchy also maintained hegemony through the Chinese tributary system.[31] The Chinese tributary system had its roots during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century CE when the Sinocentric order collapsed.[32][33]

History

Dynasties
Main article: Dynasties in Chinese history

Since the establishment of the Xia dynasty, China had been ruled by a succession of dynasties. A recurring theme in Chinese history, dynastic transitions occurred typically as a result of military conquest or usurpation. Historians often seek to account for Chinese dynastic transitions using the concept of dynastic cycle.[34][35][36]

In history, China was ruled by dynasties of various ethnic origins.[4] Although it is a common practice in Chinese historiography to label a particular dynasty as being ruled by a specific ethnicity, there were Chinese monarchs who had mixed heritage. For instance, the Emperor Xiaoming of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty was of mixed Xianbei and Han heritage; he obtained his Han ancestry from his mother, the Empress Ling.[37] Similarly, the Kangxi Emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty was of mixed Manchu and Han descent; he acquired his Han ancestry from his mother, the Empress Xiaokangzhang.[38] Therefore, the ethnic identity of the ruling families as assigned by historians should not be regarded as absolute.

Abolition
Main articles: 1911 Revolution and Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor
See also: Xinhai Lhasa turmoil, Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang, and Mongolian Revolution of 1911

On 10 October 1911, the Wuchang Uprising broke out in modern Wuhan, marking the start of the Xinhai Revolution.[39] Led by the Tongmenghui, the predecessor of the modern Kuomintang, the Xinhai Revolution soon spread to other parts of China. On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was proclaimed by Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing.[40] On 12 February 1912, the Xuantong Emperor abdicated, marking the end of the Qing dynasty and the Chinese monarchy altogether.[39]

The National Day of the Republic of China, celebrated today in the Taiwan Area, commemorates the anniversary of the Wuchang Uprising.[41] It was also celebrated officially in mainland China between 1912 CE and 1949 CE prior to the retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan.

Monarchism in post-monarchical China

During and after the Xinhai Revolution, there were various attempts at reviving the Chinese monarchy. All these attempts ultimately ended in failure.

Emperorship by Duke of Yansheng or Marquis of Extended Grace

During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (孔令貽), a 76th-generation descendant of Confucius and the Duke of Yansheng, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao.[42] Meanwhile, gentry in Anhui and Hebei supported a restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (朱煜勳), the Marquis of Extended Grace.[43] Both suggestions failed to materialize.

Empire of China
Main article: Empire of China (1915–1916)

In 1915 CE, Yuan Shikai proclaimed the Empire of China.[44] It soon sparked the National Protection War and the empire was abolished after three months.

Manchu Restoration
Main article: Manchu Restoration

In 1917 CE, the Qing loyalist Zhang Xun reinstalled Puyi to the Chinese throne.[45] This attempt at restoring the Qing dynasty, known as the Manchu Restoration, lasted only 11 days.

Manchukuo
Main article: Manchukuo

The Japanese puppet state Manchukuo was established in Northeast China in 1932 CE.[46] This regime subsequently became a monarchy with Puyi as the emperor in 1934 CE. Manchukuo collapsed in 1945 CE following the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the unconditional surrender of Japan.

Pretenders to the Chinese throne

The following is a list of pretenders to the abolished Chinese throne from the Aisin Gioro clan, the ruling house of the Qing dynasty and the Manchukuo.[lower-alpha 6]

Pretender Period Remarks
Aisin Gioro Puyi
愛新覺羅·溥儀		 1912–1917 CE,
1917–1934 CE,
1945–1967 CE		 Emperor of the Qing dynasty (1908–1912 CE).
Restored emperor of the Qing dynasty (1917 CE).
Emperor of the Manchukuo (1934–1945 CE).
Aisin Gioro Yuyan
愛新覺羅·毓嵒		 1950–1999 CE Rival pretender.
Aisin Gioro Pujie
愛新覺羅·溥傑		 1967–1994 CE
Aisin Gioro Puren
愛新覺羅·溥任		 1994–2015 CE
Jin Yuzhang
金毓嶂		 2015 CE–present

See also

Notes
  1. "His/Her Imperial Majesty" is the common English translation of the style of Chinese monarchs with imperial ranks. Rulers of lesser ranks were styled differently.
  2. The last ruler of the Chinese monarchy is disputed. Aisin Gioro Puyi was the final emperor of the Qing dynasty, the last dynasty with orthodox status in Chinese historiography, from 2 December 1908 to 12 February 1912. He was reinstalled as emperor of the Qing dynasty in the Manchu Restoration between 1 July 1917 and 12 July 1917. He later became emperor of Manchukuo, a puppet state of the Empire of Japan, from 1 March 1934 to 17 August 1945. Both the Manchu Restoration and his reign in Manchukuo are not widely recognized as legitimate in Chinese historiography. Yuan Shikai was the founder and the only emperor of the Empire of China from 12 December 1915 to 22 March 1916, but is usually not recognized as legitimate in Chinese historiography. Therefore, Aisin Gioro Puyi is usually considered the last monarch of China for his first reign between 1908 and 1912.
  3. The Qing dynasty, the last dynasty with orthodox status in Chinese historiography, collapsed on 12 February 1912 with the issuance of the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor. The Qing dynasty was briefly restored in an episode known as the Manchu Restoration in 1917. The Empire of China existed from 1915 to 1916. Manchukuo, a puppet state of the Empire of Japan, existed as a monarchy from 1934 to 1945. However, the Manchu Restoration, the Empire of China, and Manchukuo are not widely considered as legitimate in Chinese historiography. Therefore, the Chinese monarchy is usually regarded as having ended in 1912 as a result of the Xinhai Revolution.
  4. The Forbidden City in Beijing was the main residence of Chinese monarchs of the Qing dynasty, the last dynasty with orthodox status in Chinese historiography, from 1644 to 1912.
  5. On 3 November 1911, the Qing dynasty issued the constitutional Nineteen Creeds which limited the power of the emperor, marking the transition to a constitutional monarchy.[2][3] The Qing dynasty, however, was overthrown three months later.
  6. Many members and descendants of the Aisin Gioro family adopted the surname Jin (金) after the collapse of the Qing dynasty.

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