Modern Greek literature

Modern Greek literature is literature written in Modern Greek, starting in the late Byzantine era in the 11th century AD.[1] It includes work not only from within the borders of the modern Greek state, but also from other areas where Greek was widely spoken, including Istanbul, Asia Minor, and Alexandria.[2]

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The first period of modern Greek literature includes texts concerned with philosophy and the allegory of daily life, as well as epic songs celebrating the akritai (Acritic songs), the most famous of which is Digenes Akritas. In the late 16th and early 17th century, Crete flourished under Venetian rule and produced two of the most important Greek texts; Erofili (ca. 1595) by Georgios Chortatzis and Erotokritos (ca. 1600) by Vitsentzos Kornaros. European Enlightenment had a profound effect on Greek scholars, most notably Rigas Feraios and Adamantios Korais, who paved the way for the Greek War of Independence in 1821.

After the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece, intellectual output was centered in the Ionian Islands, and in Athens. The Heptanese School was represented by poets such as Dionysios Solomos, who wrote the national anthem of Greece, Lorentzos Mavilis, Aristotelis Valaoritis, and Andreas Kalvos, while the Athenian School included figures like Alexandros Rizos Rangavis and Panagiotis Soutsos. In the 19th, the Greek language question arose, as there was an intense dispute between the users of Demotic Greek, i.e. the language of everyday life, and those who favoured Katharevousa, a cultivated imitation of Ancient Greek. Kostis Palamas, Georgios Drossinis, Kostas Krystallis, and Georgios Souris, who belonged to the so-called 1880s Generation, revitalized Greek letters and helped cement Demotic Greek as the form most used in poetry. Prose also thrived, with writers like Emmanuel Rhoides, Georgios Vizyinos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, and Andreas Karkavitsas.

The most celebrated poets of the verge of 20th century are Constantine P. Cavafy, Angelos Sikelianos, Kostas Varnalis, Napoleon Lapathiotis and Kostas Karyotakis. As of prose, Nikos Kazantzakis, is the best-known Greek novelist outside Greece.[1] Other important writers of that period are Grigorios Xenopoulos, and Konstantinos Theotokis. Penelope Delta is noted for her children's stories and novels. The Generation of the '30s first introduced modernist trends in Greek literature. It included writers Stratis Myrivilis, Elias Venezis, Yiorgos Theotokas, and M. Karagatsis, and poets Giorgos Seferis, Andreas Embirikos, Yiannis Ritsos, Nikos Engonopoulos, Odysseas Elytis, and Nikiforos Vrettakos. Seferis and Elytis were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1963 and 1979 respectively.

In post-war decades many significant poets were published, such as Takis Sinopoulos, Miltos Sachtouris, Nanos Valaoritis, Tassos Leivaditis, Manolis Anagnostakis, Titos Patrikios, Kiki Dimoula, Dinos Christianopoulos and Katerina Anghelaki-Rooke. Dido Sotiriou, Stratis Tsirkas, Margarita Liberaki, Alki Zei, Menis Koumandareas, Costas Taktsis, Thanassis Valtinos, Pavlos Matesis and Vassilis Vassilikos are routinely mentioned as some of the most important post-war prose writers. Iakovos Kambanellis has been described as the "father of post–World War II Greek theater".[3] The 1980s saw the novel take over from poetry as the most prestigious genre in Greek literature. Among more recent authors who have achieved critical acclaim and/or commercial success are Nasos Vagenas, Eugenia Fakinou, Manos Kontoleon, Rhea Galanaki, Maro Douka, Giannis Xanthoulis, Jenny Mastoraki, Soti Triantafyllou, Chrysa Dimoulidou, Lena Manta, Christos Chomenidis and Giannis Palavos.

Periodization

There has been much discussion concerning the division of modern Greek literature into distinct eras. It has been suggested that it begins in 1453, the year of the Fall of Constantinople, but most scholars now agree that its onset can be traced in the 11th century, with the epic song of Digenes Akritas.[4][5] The contemporary high-school syllabus places its beginings ever earlier, in the 10th century, and divides the history of modern Greek literature as follows:

  • First period: from 10th century until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453
  • Second period: the years until the Ottoman Conquest of Crete in 1669
  • Third period: the years leading to the independence of Greece in 1830
  • Fourth period: the period of the modern Greek state (1830 - present)

Another widely accepted periodization is the following:[2]

  • 9th century - 1453
  • 1453 - 1669
  • 1669 - 1821 (start of the Greek War of Independence)
  • 1821 - 1880 (emergence of the New Athenian School)
  • 1880 - 1930 (emergence of the 1930s Generation)
  • 1930 - present

11th century to 1453
Manuscript of Digenes Akritas

The epic of Digenes Akritas, the most famous of all Acritic songs, is often referred as the starting point of modern Greek literature.[6][1] This notion is justified by the fact that it is written in a form of Greek that is more familiar to modern-day speakers.[1] In fact, Digenes Akritas and other such epics, like the Song of Armouris, are the first attempts at a literary use of the spoken, common, i.e. modern Greek language.[4] They are narrations of the heroic deeds of the akritai, the guards along the Eastern edge of the Byzantine Empire, and they use the political verse, which was probably a major medium of expression for the illiterate and half-literate members of the Byzantine society.[7] These songs come from all parts of the then Greek-speaking world, and is argued that the oldest ones are from Cyprus, Asia Minor and Pontus.[8]

During the 12th century, Byzantine writers reintroduced the ancient Greek romance literature and many such novels were composed in the following centuries. Perhaps the most popular was Livistros and Rodamni, written by a demotic writer in Cyprus or Crete.[9] Others are Hysimine and Hysimines by Eustathios Makrembolites, Rodanthe and Dosikles by Theodore Prodromos, and Kallimachos and Chrysorrhoe and Belthandros and Chrysantza, both by unknown authors. Theodore Prodromos is sometimes identified as the author of the so-called Ptochoprodromic Poems, a collection of four satiric poems, written in the vernacular.[10] Michael Glykas, who was imprisoned due to his participation in a conspiracy against Manuel I Komnenos, composed a petition in political verse, titled Poetic Lines by M. Glykas Which He Wrote during the Time He Was Detained because of Some Spiteful Informer, using vernacular and classical vocabulary.[11]

Another group of early modern Greek texts is that of allegorical and didactic poems. Story of Ptocholeon is one of the earliest such poems, and has oriental origins, probably Indian.[12] Spaneas, a poem containing moral advice for a young man, was frequently copied.[13] Amuzing tales about animals must have also been popular. Examples include the poems Tale about Quadrupeds, dated to 1364,[14] about a meeting of all the animals at the invitation of their king, the lion, the Poulologos, a similar tale about birds, and The Synaxarion of the Estimable Donkey, a 14th century fable of a donkey travelling to the Holy Land with a wolf and a fox.[10] There is also the Porikologos about fruits, written in prose as a parody of the official language of the Byzantine court.[15] In the early 14th century, the vernacular became the accepted medium for fiction of any kind.[16]

From 1453 to 1669

There are very few signs of intellectual activity during the first two centuries of Ottoman rule, as the Byzantine scholars fled to the West.[17] Their migration during the decline of the Byzantine Empire and mainly after its dissolution greatly contributed to the transmission and dissemination of Ancient Greek letters in the West, and thus in the development of the Renaissance humanism.[18] Such émigrés included Gemistos Plethon, Manuel Chrysoloras, Theodorus Gaza, Cardinal Bessarion, John Argyropoulos, and Demetrios Chalkokondyles. Therefore, from middle 15th century to 17th century, the most notable literary texts come from areas under Francocracy, such as Rhodes, the Ionian Islands, and Crete, as well as from Greeks who were active in Italy.[19] Western literature was highly influential, both in content and in form. It is believed by many scholars that the use of rhyme in Greek poetry, despite being sporadically present in works of previous centuries, was a result of that influence.[20][21]

Cretan Renaissance
Main article: Cretan literature

Crete was a Stato da Màr from 1205 until 1669. Venetian rule proved troubled from the beginning, but after the mid-16th century the change of policy towards natives and the improvement in welfare of both communities, led to a long period of peaceful coexistence and cultural crossfertilization.[22] Some scholars even talk about a shared Veneto-Cretan cultural consciousness.[23] Italian influence is apparent in these works, but there is a distinctive "Greekness" nonetheless.[24] As David Holton has put it: "Crete is the place par excellence where the meeting of the West with the Greek East took place."[25]

Cover of the editio princeps of Erofili (1637)

The first important works of Cretan literature appear in the 14th and early 15th centuries. Stephanos Sahlikis, the first known Greek poet to use the couplet form consistently,[26] wrote humorous poems with autobiographical elements, such as Praise of Pothotsoutsounia, Council of the Whores and The Remarkable Story of the Humble Sachlikis. Janus Plousiadenos' Lamentation of the Mother of God on the Passion of Christ, a religious poem, was arguably quite popular.[27] Nevertheless, perhaps the most important of these early texts, is Apokopos by Bergadis. It was probably written around 1400, and is the earliest known vernacular text to have passed into printed form, in 1509.[28] Composed in rhyming couplets in political verses, it is a tale of a trip to Hades which pokes fun at religion and popular beliefs of that time.[29] Other known poets are Marinos Falieros, and Leonardos Dellaportas.

The heyday of Cretan Renaissance literature is placed between 1590 and the Ottoman conquest of Crete in 1669.[30] The principal characteristic of this period is that almost all the works are dramas.[31] The two most prominent figures are Georgios Chortatzis and Vitsentzos Kornaros.

Georgios Chortatzis' Erofili (ca. 1595) is deemed as the finest play of Cretan theatre.[32] Written in the local idiom, it is a violent tragedy narrating the condemned love between Erofili, daughter of the Egyptian king Philogonos, and the youth Panaretos. Before Erofili, Chortatzis also wrote Katzourbos, a comedy, and Panoria, an influential pastoral drama. Vitsentzos Kornaros is best-known for Erotokritos (ca. 1600), which is regarded as the undoubted masterpiece of this period, and one of the greatest achievements of modern Greek literature.[33] It is a poem of over 10,000 rhyming 15-syllable iambic verses in the Cretan dialect, narrating the chivalrous love of Erotokritos for the princess Aretousa and their union after long and arduous adventures of deception and intrigue.[34] Kornaros is also believed by some to be the author of The Sacrifice of Abraham, a religious drama inspired by the famous episode of the Old Testament, considered a landmark of Cretan theatre.[35]

Other surviving plays are the comedies Fortounatos (ca. 1662) by Markos Antonios Foskolos, and anonymous Stathis,[lower-alpha 1] and the dramatic King Rodolinos (1647) by Andreas Troilos. Voskopoula (ca. 1600), a short narrative poem of unknown author, is the only non-drama text of this period, apart from Erotokritos.[31]

Ionian islands, Aegean Archipelago and Cyprus

In the 16th and 17th centuries Ionian islands, some lyric poetry existed alongside a didactic or hagiographical prose tradition, much of which was printed in Venice.[37] Corfiot Iakovos Trivolis wrote The Story of Tagapiera, a panegyric of a Venetian admiral, and The History of the King of Scotland and the Queen of England, a tale taken from Boccaccio's Decameron, or, more possibly, from one of its imitations.[38] Alexios Rartouros, also from Corfu, devised a prototype of popular preaching in his Sermons (1560).[37] In 1526, Nikolaos Loukanis, who lived in Venice, printed a paraphrase translation of Homer’s Iliad, noted for being the most lavishly illustrated edition of any vernacular Greek work.[39] Teodoro Montseleze's religious drama Eugena (editio princeps in 1646) is the only extant play from that period.[40] Other known authors are Markos Defanaras from Zakynthos, and Ioannikios Kartanos from Corfu.

Even though lyric poetry was popular in Rhodes, a territorial entity of the Knights Hospitaller between 1310 and 1522, only a few texts have survived.[41] Erotopaignia, the most prominent of them, was written in mid-15th century.[42] Emmanuel Georgillas or Limenitis, wrote The Plague of Rhodes, a narrative poem about the plague that hit the city of Rhodes in 1498.[43] To him is also attributed one of the surviving versions of The Tale of Belisarius, a poem relating the exploits and unjust punishment of general Belisarius.[44]

Cyprus was also an important intellectual center, evidenced mainly by the Cypriot Canzoniere, a 16th century athology of 156 poems.[45] They are translations and imitations of poems by Petrarch, Jacopo Sannazaro, Pietro Bembo, and others. Unlike other contemporary texts, they are written in the Italian hendecasyllable and in a variety of forms familiar to the Renaissance (sonnets, octaves, terzinas, sestinas, barzelettas, etc).[46] In fact, this collection contains the first true sonnets in Greek language,[47] and is widely considered one of the highest points of Renaissance literature in Greek language.[46][48] Cyprus also had a significant tradition of prose chronicles, which together with all literary output declined after the subjugation by the Ottomans.[49]

17th century Chios, saw significant theatrical activity, in the form of religious plays, which in the best cases show facets of the high Baroque, and Rococo.[50] Examples include Eleazar and the Seven Maccabee Boys by Michael Vestarchis, Three Boys in the Furnace by Grigorios Kontaratos and Drama of the Man Who Was Born Blind by Gabriel Prosopsas.

From 1669 to 1821

After 1669, many Cretans fled to the Ionian islands, thus transplanting the rich Cretan theatrical tradition there.[51] Tragedy Zenon, played in 1683, was written by an anonymous Cretan playwright.[52] Petros Katsaitis' tragedies Ifigenia (1720) and Thyestes (1721), and Savoyas Soumerlis' satirical Comedy of the Pseudo-Doctors (1745) are evidently modelled after Cretan plays,[53][54] alongside the influence from late Renaissance tragedy, commedia dell' arte, and Italian theatre in general.[52] Theatrical activity of the Aegean islands was continued in the first decades of 18th century. Examples include the anonymus David, written in frankochiotika,[55] and Tragedy of St. Demetrius, performed in 1723 on Naxos.[56] The most important poem of early 18th century is Flowers of Piety (1708), a miscellany edited by boarding students at the Flanginian College in Venice.[57] Ecclesiastical rhetoric makes up a significant part of the intellectual output of the time, with the likes of Ilias Miniatis, and Frangiskos Skoufos.

Diafotismos
Main article: Modern Greek Enlightenment

Greek Enlightenment, also known as Diafotismos, was influenced primarily by the French and German variations, but it was also based on the rich heritage of Byzantine culture.[58] Its chronological limits can be loosely placed between 1750 and 1830, with the years 1774 to 1821 marking the zenith. In essence, the historical cycle of the Enlightenment for the Greeks ends with the outbreak of the War of Independence, some time after the end of the European Enlightenment.[59] Essentially, Diafotismos was a string of educational initiatives, such as translation of classics, compilation of dictionaries, and establishment of schools.[60] The literary production of this era points to clear intellectual trends: a turn towards the classics and the sciences, the formation of a new moral order, and, above all, emancipation from Church authority.[61] Phanar in Istanbul became an intellectual centre of high importance, due to the Phanariots, members of the Greek elite of the Ottoman Empire, who had acquired great wealth and influence during the 17th century.[62] Phanariots were also active in the Danubian Principalities, where many of them were appointed Hospodars, and the Russian Empire. So pivotal was their role, that the 18th century has been named "the century of the Phanariots."[63][64]

Paschalis Kitromilides identifies scholars Methodios Anthrakites, Antonios Katiphoros, Vikentios Damodos, and Nikolaos Mavrocordatos as the precursors of Diafotismos.[65] Mavrocordatos's novel Parerga of Philotheos (1718) did not have any effect on the development of Greek letters,[lower-alpha 2] but today it can be viewed as a forerunner of the new era of Greek literature.[66] Kaisarios Dapontes lived a turbulent life and, after becoming a monk, he wrote numerous poems, such as Mirror of Women, Garden of Graces, and Concise Canon of Many Amazing Things to be Found in Many Cities, Islands, Nations and Animals.[67] His works were very popular among all walks of life, and he is today regarded as the most important poet of his age.[68]

Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios, the two foremost exponents of Greek Enlightenment[69]

Clergyman Evgenios Voulgaris was the first great figure of Diafotismos. His oeuvre, consisting of translations of Voltaire, pamphlets, treatises, essays and poems, had a decisive impact on the course of the movement.[70] Iosipos Moisiodax, Christodoulos Pablekis, and Dimitrios Katartzis were also significant representatives of modern Greek Enlightenment, although they did not contributed to literature per se.

Adamantios Korais worked on political writings and translations of ancient and contemporary texts, but his central position in the history of Greek literature is due to his conception of Katharevousa, a purified form of the Greek language.[71] He also was instrumental in the founding of Hermes o Logios, the most important periodical prior to the War of Independence.[72] His prefaces to the first four books of Homer’s Iliad (known as The Running Reverend) mark a launching pad for modern prose narrative.[73]

The ferment created by the French Revolution in Greek politics and social thought in the last decade of the eighteenth century found its most dramatic expression in the intellectual and political activities of Rigas Feraios.[74] Feraios translated foreign authors and wrote revolutionary texts and poems, of which Thourios is the most famous. Although his plans for an armed revolt against the Ottomans failed, he served as an inspiration for future generations and has been named the "National Bard".[75]

Cultivation of literature is detected mostly in the last quarter of the 18th century, and intensified in the years preceding the War of Independence. In 1785, Georgios N. Soutsos wrote The Unscrupulous Voevod Alexandros, a three-act comedy in prose, with which the genre of Phanariot satire begins.[76] The 1789 untitled libel by an unknown author (notnamed "Anonymus of 1789") is considered the first manifestation of creative prose in modern Greek.[77][78] Another important text of this genre is Anglofrancorussian (1805), a satire written in verse that became a kind of manifesto for the new ideology of the Enlightenment in its most extreme version.[78] Other examples include The Character of Valachia (ca. 1800), The Return, or The Lantern of Diogenes (1809), and The Comedy of the Apple of Discord (before 1820), all by unknown authors.[79]

Poetry was centered around two poles: Phanariots and those affected by the phanariot spirit; and the Heptanesians. Alexander Mavrocordatos Firaris, Dionisie Fotino, Michael Perdikaris, Georgios Sakellarios, and Athanasios Christopoulos belong to the first group, with Sakellarios and Christopoulos considered the most important. Phanariot poetry of the time covered many different of themes, including romantic love, allegory and satire.[80] On the other hand, Ionians mostly wrote patriotic and satirical poems.[81] Antonios Martelaos, Thomas Danelakis, and Nikolaos Koutouzis are called pre-Solomians (i.e. those preceding Dionysios Solomos), and are the precursors of the flourishing of Heptanese poetry in the following years. Ioannis Vilaras, an important intellectual figure, is a distinct case, not only because his poems were published posthumously, during the War of Independence, but also because he cannot be categorized in any of the aforementioned literary groups.

In the Ionian islands treatrical performances were quite frequent, usually in the form of sketches, isolated scenes from the Cretan dramas,[82] and adaptations of foreign plays.[52] From the indigenous output, Dimitrios Gouzelis's comedy Chasis (1790 or 1795)[83] is by far the most notable.

Later history

The years before the Greek Independence, the Ionian islands became the center of the Heptanese School (literature). Its main characteristics was the Italian influence, romanticism, nationalism and use of Demotic Greek. Notable representatives were Andreas Laskaratos, Antonios Matesis, Andreas Kalvos, Aristotelis Valaoritis and Dionysios Solomos.

After the independence the intellectual center was transferred in Athens. A major figure of this new era was Kostis Palamas, considered "national poet" of Greece. He was the central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so-called New Athenian School (or Palamian School). Its main characteristic was the use of Demotic Greek. He was also the writer of the Olympic Hymn.

Modern Greek literature is usually (but not exclusively) written in polytonic orthography, though the monotonic orthography was made official in 1981 by Andreas Papandreou government. Modern Greek literature is represented by many writers, poets and novelists. Major representatives are Angelos Sikelianos, Emmanuel Rhoides, Athanasios Christopoulos, Kostis Palamas, Penelope Delta, Yannis Ritsos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Andreas Embeirikos, Kostas Karyotakis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Constantine P. Cavafy, Demetrius Vikelas, Georgios Vizyinos, while George Seferis and Odysseas Elytis have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Parnassos Literary Society. From left: Georgios Stratigis, Georgios Drossinis, Ioannis Polemis, Palamas at the center, Georgios Souris and Aristomenis Provelengios, poets of the New Athenian School (or Palamian School). Painting by Georgios Roilos

Other writers include Manolis Anagnostakis, Nicolas Calas, Georgios Drosinis, Kiki Dimoula, Maro Douka, Nikos Engonopoulos, Nikos Gatsos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Nikos Kavvadias, Andreas Karkavitsas, Kostas Krystallis, Dimitris Lyacos, Petros Markaris, Lorentzos Mavilis, Jean Moréas, Stratis Myrivilis, Zacharias Papantoniou, Dimitris Psathas, Ioannis Psycharis, Aristomenis Provelengios, Alexandros Rizos Rangavis, Vasilis Rotas, Miltos Sahtouris, Antonis Samarakis, Giannis Skarimpas, Dido Sotiriou, Georgios Souris, Alexandros Soutsos, Panagiotis Soutsos, Georgios Stratigis, Angelos Terzakis, Kostas Varnalis, Vassilis Vassilikos, Elias Venezis, Demetrios Bernardakis and Nikephoros Vrettakos.

Notable works

Theatrical plays
Main article: Modern Greek theatre
Iakovos Kambanellis

See also

Notes
  1. Some scholars accredit Stathis to Chortatzis, albeit not categorically.[35][36]
  2. Parerga of Philotheos was only published in 1800.[66]

References
  1. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 10.
  2. Merry 2004, p. xi.
  3. Merry 2004, p. 208.
  4. Politis 1973, p. 3.
  5. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 17.
  6. Beaton 1996, p. 32.
  7. Jeffreys, Michael (1974). "The Nature and Origins of the Political Verse". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 28: 141–195. doi:10.2307/1291358. JSTOR 1291358.
  8. Alexiou 2002, p. 206.
  9. Merry 2004, p. 373.
  10. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 18.
  11. Merry 2004, pp. 160–161.
  12. Politis 1973, p. 35.
  13. Beaton 1996, p. 14.
  14. Politis 1973, p. 36.
  15. Politis 1973, p. 37.
  16. Beaton 1996, p. 13.
  17. Mastrodimitris 2005, p. 105.
  18. Lamers, Han (2015). Greece Reinvented: Transformations of Byzantine Hellenism in Renaissance Italy. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. vii–viii. ISBN 9789004303799.
  19. Politis 1973, pp. 38–39.
  20. Dimaras 2000, p. 83.
  21. Vitti 2003, p. 41.
  22. Puchner & Walker White 2017, p. 114.
  23. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 40.
  24. Dimaras 2000, p. 96.
  25. Holton 1991, p. 2.
  26. Beaton 2009, p. 208.
  27. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 44.
  28. Holton 1991, p. 251.
  29. Alexiou 2002, p. 111.
  30. Mastrodimitris 2005, pp. 119–120.
  31. Politis 1973, p. 54.
  32. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 50.
  33. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 48.
  34. Greene et al. 2012, p. 583.
  35. Puchner & Walker White 2017, p. 115.
  36. Mastrodimitris 2005, p. 127.
  37. Merry 2004, p. 192.
  38. Politis 1973, pp. 39–40.
  39. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 27.
  40. Puchner & Walker White 2017, pp. 175–176.
  41. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 43.
  42. Merry 2004, p. 134.
  43. Politis 1973, p. 39.
  44. Merry 2004, p. 42.
  45. Vitti 2003, p. 64.
  46. Politis 1973, p. 44.
  47. Vitti 2003, p. 66.
  48. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 45.
  49. Merry 2004, p. 92.
  50. Puchner & Walker White 2017, pp. 209–210.
  51. Dimaras 2000, p. 111.
  52. Puchner & Walker White 2017, p. 175.
  53. Merry 2004, p. 383.
  54. Puchner & Walker White 2017, p. 180.
  55. Mastrodimitris 2005, pp. 141–142.
  56. Puchner & Walker White 2017, p. 225.
  57. Merry 2004, p. 147.
  58. Puchner & Walker White 2017, p. 246.
  59. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 60.
  60. Merry 2004, p. 127.
  61. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 62.
  62. Mastrodimitris 2005, pp. 142–143.
  63. Pippidi, Andrei (1987). "Shorter Notices". The English Historical Review. CII (403): 498–499. doi:10.1093/ehr/CII.403.498.
  64. Dimaras 1989, p. 31.
  65. Kitromilides 2013, p. 57.
  66. Dimaras 1989, p. 8.
  67. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 61.
  68. Dimaras 2000, p. 151.
  69. Kitromilides, Paschalis M. (1979). "The dialectic of intolerance: ideological dimensions of ethnic conflict". Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora. 6 (4): 5–30.
  70. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 66.
  71. Skendi, Stavro (1975). "Language as a Factor of National Identity in the Balkans of the Nineteenth Century". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 119 (2): 186–189.
  72. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, p. 63.
  73. Merry 2004, pp. 236–237.
  74. Kitromilides 2013, p. 200.
  75. Kordatos 1983, p. 123.
  76. Puchner & Walker White 2017, p. 258.
  77. Dimaras 2000, p. 203.
  78. Hadjivassiliou et al. 2001, pp. 65–66.
  79. Puchner & Walker White 2017, pp. 259–260.
  80. Dimaras 2000, pp. 234–235.
  81. Vitti 2003, p. 167.
  82. Politis 1973, p. 106.
  83. Puchner & Walker White 2017, p. 185.

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